The Earth's atmosphere is changing. Scientific measurements have documented shifts in chemical composition throughout the lower atmosphere, as well as substantial alterations in chemical composition in the upper atmosphere. Both of these findings have important implications for terrestrial life and human societies.
Natural and Human Influences
Some of these changes have a natural origin. Variations in the intensity of solar radiation influence the energy balance, chemistry, and dynamics of the atmosphere, as do fluctuations in the intensity of the solar wind and of cosmic rays from space. Volcanic eruptions inject dust, ash, and a variety of chemical compounds into the atmosphere. Such natural events tend to be either periodic or episodic; their effects, while often dramatic, normally pose little threat to the equilibrium of the global Earth system.
Human activities are also responsible for atmospheric change. By contrast with natural processes, however, these activities are generating long-term trends which, if continued, may lead to large and irreversible effects. For example, the burning of fossil fuels is producing a worldwide increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, which transmits visible light but traps infrared radiation near the Earth's surface. This so-called "greenhouse effect" will produce a global warming trend. If atmospheric carbon dioxide continues to increase at the present rate, modeling studies estimate that the global average surface temperature will rise some 2deg. Celsius by the middle of the next century--a climate change greater than any ever experienced by organized human societies.
Moreover, carbon dioxide is only one of several "greenhouse" gases. The others, although individually of less significance, may collectively produce a comparable effect. These include nitrous oxide (resulting from microbial activity, combustion, and use of nitrogen fertilizers), methane (produced by swamps, rice paddies, and the digestive systems of termites and ruminant animals), and the chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are still utilized in some parts of the world as spray-can propellants and throughout the industrialized world in plastic-foam manufacture, cleaning of industrial components, air conditioning, and refrigeration.
CFCs and Stratospheric Ozone
The introduction of CFCs into the atmosphere can ultimately lead to depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer, which shields terrestrial life from harmful solar ultraviolet radiation. Once released into the lower atmosphere, the CFCs migrate upward into the stratosphere, where they are decomposed by ultraviolet sunlight. The chlorine thus freed acts as a catalyst to destroy ozone. There is strong evidence that CFCs are largely responsible for the substantial seasonal declines in ozone levels over Antarctica in recent years, and there is mounting concern that global ozone levels are also being affected. Atmospheric concentrations of the two major CFCs are currently increasing at the alarming rate of 5% per year. Other greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, also play roles in the ozone chemistry of the upper atmosphere.
The United States banned CFCs as aerosol propellants in 1978, and many nations have now agreed to further limit CFC use. However, our knowledge of upper-atmosphere chemistry is at present inadequate for detailed study of the ozone problem, as is our understanding of the dynamical processes and energy balances that are closely coupled to chemical effects. Informed policy decisions of the 1990s will need to draw upon a comprehensive data base furnished by a systematic, global research program targeted at the upper atmosphere. NASA's Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) is the centerpiece of that program.
UARS: THE MANDATE
We have probed the outer edges of our solar system with automated spacecraft, and Earth-orbiting astronomical observatories have opened new windows on the universe. Yet the Earth's upper atmosphere--beginning only 10-15 km above the surface--remains a frontier largely unexplored from space. NASA's Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) will carry out the first systematic, comprehensive study of the stratosphere and furnish important new data on the mesosphere and thermosphere.
A Global Research Program
The processes of importance in the upper atmosphere--energy balance, dynamics, and chemistry--are global in scale. Their study therefore requires the global coverage that can only be achieved by remote sensing from space. In this approach, spacecraft sensors measure the energy radiated by the atmosphere, or the energy absorbed or scattered from sunlight passing through the atmosphere. Analysis of the results furnishes detailed information on chemical constituents, temperature, winds, and the effects of energy inputs from sunlight and the solar wind. These findings will help to reveal the mechanisms that control the structure and variability of the upper atmosphere, to improve the predictability of ozone depletion, and to define the role of the upper atmosphere in the Earth's climate system.
The UARS program builds upon decades of research with rockets, balloons, aircraft, and such satellites as the Television Infrared Operational Satellite (TIROS) and Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO) series, the Solar Mesosphere Explorer (SME), and the Nimbus series. The UARS mission objectives are to provide an increased understanding of:
Energy input into the upper atmosphere;
Global photochemistry of the upper atmosphere;
Dynamics of the upper atmosphere;
The coupling among these processes; and
The coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere.
In addition to nine experimental groups, the UARS program includes ten theoretical groups with specific responsibilities for data analysis and interpretation. One important product of these studies will be computer models that simulate processes in the upper atmosphere. These simulations will test our understanding of these processes and provide predictions of changes in atmospheric structure and behavior important to future policy formulation.
Study of Global Change
The national mandate for UARS dates to 1976, when the U.S. Congress, responding to the identification of new causes of ozone depletion, directed NASA to expand its research program related to the upper atmosphere. A vigorous research initiative was soon established involving rockets, aircraft, and balloons, together with laboratory and theoretical studies. These investigations have confirmed that man-made chemicals are indeed depleting stratospheric ozone, heightening concern over the effects of this depletion of life on Earth. In recognition of this concern, NASA has made the timely flight of UARS a key near-term component of a systematic, long-range plan for the study of global change from space.
The Mission
Scheduled for deployment by the Space Shuttle in late 1991, UARS will operate 600 km above the Earth in an orbit inclined 57 degrees to the Equator. This orbit will permit the UARS sensors to "see" up to 80 degrees in latitude--thus providing essentially global coverage of the stratosphere and mesosphere--and to make measurements over the full range of local times at all geographic locations every 36 days.
The nine UARS sensors will provide the most complete data on energy inputs, winds, and chemical composition ever gathered. Taken together, the data sets will yield the first simultaneous, comprehensive, global coverage of these closely coupled atmospheric properties. These observations thus constitute a highly integrated investigation into the nature of the upper atmosphere. Additional correlative data, as well as theoretical studies linked to specific sensor objectives, will complement the UARS observations to provide a systematic, unified research approach.
An International Legacy
An important aspect of the UARS program is its coordination with additional national and international programs of study and data acquisition. Other nations are contributing to the UARS instruments, and scientists from many nations will ultimately participate in the analysis and utilization of UARS data.
Upon completion of the UARS mission, we will have gained a dramatically expanded and detailed picture of the energetics, dynamics, and chemistry of the upper atmosphere. This information will then be available to governments around the world, enabling them to address more effectively the role of human activities in altering upper-atmosphere properties.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The Earth's atmosphere is structured in layers, each with characteristic physical and dynamical properties, each interacting with the layers above and below it. For most purposes, it is convenient to classify these atmospheric layers by the variation of temperature with altitude.
The Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, extending to a height of 10-15 km, depending on latitude. This region contains most of the atmosphere's clouds and weather and is the major source and sink for important trace gases for higher atmospheric layers. Early observations showed that temperature declines with altitude in the troposphere, and it was long believed that this relationship held throughout the atmosphere.
The Stratosphere
Toward the end of the 19th century, however, further research revealed a more complex temperature behavior. Leon Phillippe Teisserenc de Bort, a French meteorologist, launched hundreds of balloons that carried thermometers, barometers, and hygrometers to altitudes of 10-15 km. These mid-latitude observations revealed that temperature declines with altitude only up to a height of about 12 km. De Bort had discovered the tropopause, which marks the limit of the troposphere and the beginning of the upper atmosphere.
De Bort's balloon measurements, which were not particularly sensitive, seemed to show that atmospheric temperature remained roughly constant above the tropopause. If this were the case, atmospheric gases would be expected to become sorted into layers, or "strata," according to their molecular weights; the region above the troposphere was therefore named the stratosphere.
The true structure of the upper atmosphere was revealed by a series of experiments that followed de Bort's pioneering investigations. The stratosphere is now known to be a region of intense interactions among radiative, dynamical, and chemical processes in which horizontal mixing of gaseous components proceeds much more rapidly than vertical mixing. Contrary to de Bort's early conclusion, the stratosphere is warmer than the upper troposphere: temperature above the tropopause increases slowly with height up to about 50 km. However, an explanation for this phenomenon was not found until 1930, when a plausible theory was put forth by Sidney Chapman for the existence of a stratospheric ozone layer. Absorption of solar ultraviolet energy by ozone produces most of the heating in the middle atmosphere.
The Mesosphere and Thermosphere
Above about 50 km in altitude, the ozone heating effect diminishes in importance because of falling ozone concentrations, and radiative cooling becomes relatively more important. The temperature thus begins to decline again with altitude. This effect marks the stratopause--the top of the stratosphere and the bottom of the mesosphere. Rocket experiments in the 1940s and 1950s showed that the temperature falls to -70deg. to -140deg. Celsius in the upper mesosphere, depending on latitude and season.
In the late 1950s, rocket flights probed a region above the mesosphere the thermosphere--where temperature again begins to rise with altitude. The mesopause, at an altitude of about 80 km, separates the mesosphere from this outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. Heating of the thermosphere is due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation by the small amount of residual molecular oxygen still present, and temperatures can rise to 2,000deg. Celsius. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases do in fact become sorted into strata according to molecular mass, as de Bort had earlier conjectured for the stratosphere.
Since spacecraft in low Earth orbit actually pass through the outer thermosphere, direct sampling of chemical species there has been used extensively to develop an understanding of thermospheric properties. Explorer-17, launched in 1963, was the first satellite to return quantitative measurements of gaseous stratification in the thermosphere. However, the mesosphere and lower layers cannot be probed directly in this way--global observations from space require remote sensing from a spacecraft at an altitude well above the mesopause. The formidable technological challenges of atmospheric remote sensing, many of which are only now being overcome, have delayed detailed study of the stratosphere and mesosphere by comparison with thermospheric research advances.
UPPER-ATMOSPHERE PROCESSES
Chemistry, dynamics, and energy inputs are the processes that determine upper-atmosphere structure and behavior. These processes are closely coupled and must be studied together. Only in this way can we gain an understanding sufficiently detailed to permit accurate predictions of the effects of human influences on the upper atmosphere.
Chemistry
Chemical processes are responsible for the formation and maintenance of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer, which is in turn responsible for the heating effect that distinguishes the stratosphere from the troposphere. It is the ozone layer that shields terrestrial life from the harmful effects of solar ultraviolet radiation. Upper-atmosphere chemical processes that can alter ozone concentrations are therefore a focal point of the UARS research program.
Ozone is produced naturally in the middle and upper stratosphere through dissociation of molecular oxygen by sunlight. In the absence of chemical species produced by human activity, ozone balance is maintained by a number of competing chemical reactions among naturally occurring species, primarily atomic oxygen, molecular oxygen, and oxides of hydrogen and nitrogen.
In the present-day stratosphere, however, this natural balance has been altered, particularly by the introduction of man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). There are no known mechanisms for CFC destruction in the lower atmosphere; industrially released CFCs therefore continue to accumulate in the troposphere until they are transported into the stratosphere. There they are dissociated by solar ultraviolet radiation to yield atomic chlorine, which is known to deplete ozone through catalytic reactions powered by sunlight.
A wide variety of other chemical species must also be taken into account in any attempt to understand the highly complex chemistry of the stratosphere and the fate of the ozone layer (see pages 16-17). UARS will obtain data on a large number of the key chemical species in the upper atmosphere.
Dynamics
Winds play an important role in transporting heat and gases in the upper atmosphere. Global distributions of chemical species are determined primarily by planetary-scale motions with periods of several days and longer. However, smaller-scale motions are important in several contexts, including the exchange of gases between the troposphere and stratosphere. It is estimated that as much as 70% of the total stratospheric air mass is exchanged with the troposphere each year, assuring the continual upward introduction of tropospheric species into the stratosphere and the downward transport of stratospheric reaction products.
The wind fields in the upper atmosphere are closely related to the distributions of certain trace gases, as well as to energy inputs. Since ozone is the most abundant absorber of solar ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere and mesosphere, its spatial distribution strongly influences the pattern of atmospheric heating in these regions. In addition, the chemical reaction rates that govern species abundances are sensitive to temperature, generally increasing with higher temperature. Atmospheric heating thus influences chemistry and, through the creation of pressure gradients, the wind fields (see pages 20-21).
Energy Inputs
Radiation from the Sun is the dominant influence on upper-atmosphere processes. Virtually all of the solar ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength range 120-300 nm is absorbed in the stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere. This energy, together with magnetospheric energy inputs at high latitudes, is fundamental to the photochemistry and dynamics of the upper atmosphere. Solar irradiance, combined with cooling by emission in the thermal-infrared spectral region, produces most of the seasonal, vertical, and latitudinal variability of the atmosphere's thermal structure, which in turn controls most of the dynamics of the upper atmosphere. A quantitative understanding of atmospheric radiative processes is therefore essential to investigations of upper-atmosphere chemistry and dynamics (see pages 22-23).
ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH: A PERSPECTIVE
Human interest in atmospheric studies reaches back to antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophy held that air was one of the four basic elements (together with earth, fire, and water) of which all things are composed. Democritus even proposed an atomic theory of the atmosphere. Scientific research into the atmosphere during the 17th and 18th centuries laid the foundations for much of modern physics and chemistry and initiated the systematic study of atmospheric properties.
Balloons and Aircraft
Development of the manned hot-air balloon in the late 1700s provided the first platform suitable for research at high altitudes. A wealth of important findings, such as the constancy of the nitrogen-oxygen ratio throughout the lower troposphere, quickly followed. Interest in manned balloon flight had waned by the beginning of the 20th century, but improvements in balloon design, instrumentation, and communication with the ground soon produced renewed research activity. In the 1930s and 1940s, balloons reached above 20 km to gather data on weather patterns, upper-atmosphere phenomena, and cosmic rays. Modern balloons, which can range above 40 km, remain the platforms of choice for many atmospheric studies; although limited in geographic and altitude coverage, they offer extended observing times, launch flexibility, and modest cost. Aircraft specially designed to fly at very high altitudes (up to 22 km) can now provide rapid in situ and remote-sensing measurements of stratospheric properties.
Rockets
Rockets emerged as important research tools in the early 20th century, and by the 1930s they were producing fundamental new data on the upper atmosphere. Research during World War II greatly increased rocket capability and performance. Despite short observing times and limited geographic coverage, postwar rocket flights delineated the major features of the atmosphere to very high altitudes, helping to establish our present picture of temperature and composition variations with height. They also furnished the first measurements of the solar ultraviolet spectrum virtually free of atmospheric absorption.
Spacecraft
The Space Age, beginning in 1957, opened up a new dimension in atmospheric research. The first satellite images of the Earth's weather patterns and surface features were returned in 1960. Spacecraft in low Earth orbit measured directly the chemical composition and other properties of the upper thermosphere, but space observations of the stratosphere and mesosphere had to await the development of remote-sensing instruments. During the 1970s and 1980s, a series of increasingly refined experiments (e.g., OGO, the Atmospheric Explorers, Nimbus) demonstrated the enormous potential of remote-sensing techniques for upper-atmosphere investigations. UARS will bring these maturing techniques to bear on a wide range of atmospheric properties within a systematic, integrated research program.
THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE: GLOBAL STUDY
The inaccessibility of the upper atmosphere has long hindered its global study. Tropospheric absorption impedes direct observation from surface stations which are in any case largely confined to land areas. Balloons can carry massive instruments, and rockets permit smaller payloads to reach great heights, but extensive geographic coverage by these means is not feasible. Global study of the upper atmosphere requires remote sensing from space, which permits rapid, systematic coverage of atmospheric properties worldwide.
Previous Satellite Observations
The first TIROS spacecraft, launched in 1960, initiated studies of the atmosphere from space. Although designed for weather observations, this pioneering satellite amply demonstrated the potential of atmospheric remote sensing for research. Successive TIROS spacecraft operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have returned data of increasing refinement and relevance to atmospheric studies. However, advances in such operational programs have depended upon experimental instruments developed by NASA for scientific research.
The NASA Nimbus satellites, launched between 1964 and 1978, served as testbeds for new remote-sensing techniques, provided data on upper-atmosphere structure, and paved the way for transfer of proven remote-sensing technology to NOAA operational use. Other NASA satellites utilized remote sensing and in some cases in situ techniques to probe the thermosphere and upper mesosphere during the 1970s and early 1980s. These included the Orbiting Geophysical Observatories, the Atmospheric Explorers, the Dynamics Explorers, the Solar Mesosphere Explorer, and the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite.
Present Research Needs
These space investigations have significantly advanced our understanding of the upper atmosphere. However, their findings have also raised important new issues and questions that need to be addressed by a new generation of research satellites.
For example, analyses of ozone concentrations above Antarctica measured by the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) aboard Nimbus-7 have traced in detail the development of the Antarctic "ozone hole" revealed initially by ground-based observations. The current explanation for this phenomenon stresses chemical mechanisms initiated by man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), coupled with the extremely low temperatures, protracted night, and unique atmospheric dynamics found in the polar regions. The Antarctic ozone hole thus appears to provide a striking example of the coupling among upper-atmosphere chemistry, dynamics, and energy inputs that is a major area of UARS investigation.
The eventual impact of CFCs on ozone levels worldwide cannot yet be firmly predicted. Because of the complexity of stratospheric chemistry, many more chemical species need to be measured, and measured more accurately, if numerical simulations of global ozone levels are to become reliable. Moreover, because of the importance of dynamical effects, extensive new stratospheric wind data are also essential; direct wind measurements have so far been made only within the troposphere. In addition, a definitive series of energy-input measurements, carried out simultaneously with chemical and dynamical observations, is needed to constrain models of the upper atmosphere. UARS, which builds upon the results of previous satellite experiments, will provide the fundamental data required in all three of these research areas.
UARS: AN INTEGRATED DESIGN
The UARS mission is by far the most complex space investigation of the upper atmosphere ever attempted. Yet the design of all major mission components--the UARS observatory, the instrument complement, mission operations, and scientific data analysis--embodies such a high degree of integration that the mission is essentially a single experiment.
The UARS Observatory
The observatory includes the nine UARS instruments, a specially designed instrument module, and the Multimission Modular Spacecraft (MMS). The MMS incorporates standard modules for attitude control, communications and data handling, electrical power, and propulsion. These modules offer the capability for on-orbit servicing, and the entire observatory has been designed to permit its retrieval and return to Earth by a Space Shuttle crew if required.
Scientific Instruments
The UARS instruments have been selected to provide the most complete and thoroughly integrated experimental picture ever obtained of the upper atmosphere. These investigations will build upon, extend, and consolidate the results of previous missions, which have already provided some insight into the complexity of upper-atmosphere processes.
Three types of measurements will be carried out: (1) composition and temperature, (2) winds, and (3) energy inputs. Four UARS instruments are devoted to measurements of the first kind; they will spectroscopically determine the concentrations of many different chemical species and derive the variation of atmospheric temperature with altitude by observing infrared emissions from carbon dioxide. Two instruments, utilizing high-resolution interferometry, will study upper-atmosphere winds by sensing the Doppler shift in light absorbed by or emitted from atmospheric molecules. An additional three investigations will obtain estimates of the energy incident on the atmosphere by measuring solar ultraviolet radiation and the flux of charged particles from the Earth's magnetosphere.
Operating collectively and simultaneously, these nine experiments in effect constitute a single investigation. A tenth instrument, devoted to measurements of total solar irradiance (the "solar constant"), will also be carried to extend a data set of importance to global climate studies.
Mission Operations
Planning for UARS operations has been guided by two fundamental principles. First, effective operation will require the active participation of each instrument investigator and of the mission-control center at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Maryland. In addition, a high degree of coordination among measurements by the various instruments will be essential to achieve program goals.
These principles are implemented through a longterm science plan that will guide UARS flight operations. Daily science plans derived from this unified approach will be filed in the Command Management System at the GSFC mission-control center. The scientific investigators, functioning as a coordinated team, will help to guide the day-by-day commanding of the spacecraft to ensure that mission objectives requiring multi-instrument observations will be met. Data on instrument and spacecraft performance will be accessible immediately by Remote Analysis Computers (RACs) operated by scientists at their home institutions, encouraging a high degree of interaction between investigator groups and the scientific operations staff.
Data Analysis
The UARS data system provides a framework that unites the UARS mission and its many data sets. This system, incorporating software developed by the instrument investigators, will convert UARS observations into the processed, catalogued data products essential to facilitate rapid analyses and the understanding of complex atmospheric processes. Consistent with the operation of UARS as a single, integrated experiment, all UARS data will be pooled and made available to all investigators (both experimental and theoretical) from the beginning of the observing program. This policy, together with the highly interactive linking of mission control to the RAC network and the opportunity to influence mission planning, will permit scientists to detect unusual features immediately and to respond rapidly to such sporadic events as solar flares and volcanic eruptions.
ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
Mounting, worldwide concern over the depletion of the Earth's protective ozone layer has brought the importance of upper-atmosphere chemistry into sharp relief. A better understanding of the numerous, complex, and interconnected chemical reactions in the stratosphere is a particularly critical research need. It is this challenge that provides the primary driving force for the UARS mission.
The chemistry of the upper atmosphere can be organized into reactions within a few families of constituents containing nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H), or chlorine (Cl), together with the interactions among these families. Each family contains three basic types of species: source molecules, free radicals, and reservoir/sink molecules.
The source molecules are relatively stable compounds derived from biological, geological, or human processes taking place on the Earth's surface. Free radicals are short-lived, highly reactive intermediate species produced by dissociation of the source molecules by solar ultraviolet radiation or by reactions with other stratospheric constituents. The reservoir/sink molecules are longer-lived compounds into which the free radicals can be temporarily combined; they enter into a variety of reactions that produce stable species.
Source Molecules
The source molecules are long-lived in the troposphere and eventually reach the stratosphere, where they are dissociated to yield highly reactive free radicals. The most important source molecules are:
Chlorofluorocarbons CFC-11 (CFCl3) and CFC-12 (CF2Cl2), used in refrigeration and air conditioning, in plastic foam manufacture, as solvents, and as spraycan propellants in some countries. They are entirely of industrial origin. In the stratosphere, CFCs are dissociated by solar ultraviolet radiation to produce atomic chlorine, which depletes ozone through an efficient catalytic reaction.
Nitrous oxide (N2O), arising mostly from natural processes but also from the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. Tropical forests are a major source. In the stratosphere, N2O is the chemical parent of the other, more reactive oxides of nitrogen, such as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), that are involved in the depletion of ozone (O3)
Methane (CH4), produced by swamps, marshes, tundra, rice paddies, termites, and ruminant animals. Oil and gas drilling may also release significant amounts. In the stratosphere, methane is the parent of a group of reactive species containing oxygen and hydrogen that play a key role in all of stratospheric chemistry.
Free Radicals
Free radicals are the key intermediate species in many important stratospheric chain reactions in which an ozone molecule is destroyed and the radical is regenerated. For example, atomic chlorine released by the stratospheric dissociation of CFC molecules reacts with ozone (O3) as follows:
Cl + O3 --> ClO + O2,
O + ClO --> O2 + Cl.
The net effect of this pair of reactions is the conversion of atomic oxygen (O) and ozone into molecular oxygen (O2):
O + O3 --> 2 O2.
The chlorine, acting as a catalyst, survives the reaction and proceeds to initiate successive reactions.
An analogous catalytic process involves NO and NO2 which are formed in the stratosphere by reactions involving N2O. There ensues a similar chain of reactions in which ozone is destroyed and NO is regenerated. The hydroxyl radical, OH, is also a catalytic ozone depleter.
Reservoir/Sink Molecules
After participating in numbers of such reactions, the free radicals are finally recombined into more stable reservoir/sink molecules. These are eventually transported into the troposphere and rained out of the atmosphere. The formation of reservoir/sink molecules thus terminates the catalytic destruction of ozone, but not before a single free radical, such as NO, Cl, or OH, has destroyed many thousands of ozone molecules.
Analysis, Theory, and Modeling
Theoretical analyses and numerical modeling are required to integrate new observations into coherent theoretical frameworks that reflect our understanding of the upper atmosphere. Numerical models also test this understanding by providing results that can be compared with independent data. Some models yield forecasts of future trends.
Present atmospheric models include more than 200 chemical reactions among more than 40 reactive species. One-dimensional models, which embody the most complete chemistry and yield a global average atmospheric chemical composition that varies with altitude, are used for a number of purposes, e.g., to project future ozone levels. Two-dimensional models include latitude as well as altitude variations, thus providing information about geographical and seasonal effects; however, they require approximations of transport processes and place much greater demands upon computing resources. Three-dimensional models are being developed to accommodate longitudinal variations as well, but these at present include only relatively simple chemistry and require the most powerful computers.
Theoretical studies are also essential to the full utilization of UARS data and the refinement of atmospheric models. Such studies are an integral part of UARS research and will help to lay the foundations for policy decisions required to respond to global atmospheric change.
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION AND TEMPERATURE
The atmospheric concentration of a gas can be measured remotely through observation of characteristic wavelengths of radiation emitted or absorbed by the gas. In the case of absorption, the Sun or various stars serve as light sources, and the absorption is found from measurements of the decrease of light along the line of sight from the source. Since the amount of radiation emitted or absorbed depends on the gas temperature as well as the concentration, UARS will also carry out temperature measurements to permit quantitative determinations of atmospheric composition from the spectral data.
For the molecular gases to be studied by UARS, the characteristic wavelengths of radiation lie in the infrared and microwave regions of the spectrum. Four UARS sensors will make global measurements of the vertical distributions of ozone, methane, water vapor, and other minor species involved in the chemistry of the ozone layer. In addition, two of these sensors will derive atmospheric temperature profiles through observations of infrared radiation emitted by carbon dioxide, which is assumed to be well mixed throughout the atmosphere.
(1) CLAES
The Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES) will determine concentrations of members of the nitrogen and chlorine families, as well as ozone, water vapor, methane, and carbon dioxide, through observations of infrared thermal emissions at wavelengths from 3.5 to 12.7 microns. To obtain a vertical profile of species concentration, CLAES utilizes a telescope, a spectrometer, and a linear array of 20 detectors to make simultaneous measurements at 20 altitudes ranging from 10 to 60 km.
Because the detectors and optics generate their own thermal emissions, they must be cooled to temperatures which suppress this emission below that of the gases under observation. The CLAES cryogenic system consists of two components: a block of solid neon at -260deg.C, which cools the detectors to minimize detector noise, and a surrounding block of solid carbon dioxide at -150deg.C to reduce background emission from the optical system. Although the use of passive, stored cryogens limits the useful observing lifetime of the instrument, it is the only practical way of achieving the very low temperatures required for the CLAES detectors.
(2) ISAMS
The Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS), a filter radiometer employing 8 detectors, observes infrared molecular emissions by means of a movable off-axis reflecting telescope. In addition to scanning the atmosphere vertically, the telescope can also be commanded to view regions to either side of the UARS observatory, thus providing increased geographic coverage. The ISAMS instrument utilizes a Stirling-cycle refrigerator to cool its 8 detectors to -195deg.C, an approach that yields a potentially long operating lifetime.
One of the interesting features of ISAMS is that it carries samples of some of the gases to be measured in cells within the instrument. Atmospheric radiation collected by the telescope will pass through these cells on its way to the detectors. This design allows ISAMS to match the full spectra of the gases in the cells with the spectra observed in the atmosphere. In addition, ISAMS employs broadband filters to isolate portions of the spectrum, thus permitting measurements of those gases which, because of their chemical activity, cannot be confined in cells.
The ISAMS experiment will measure the concentrations of nitrogen chemical species, as well as ozone, water vapor, methane, and carbon monoxide, through observations in the infrared spectral region from 4.6 to 16.6 microns. This instrument is an improved version of one that operated from 1978 to 1983 aboard Nimbus-7.
(3) MLS
The Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) will measure emissions of chlorine monoxide, hydrogen peroxide, water vapor, and ozone in the microwave spectral region at frequencies of 63, 183, and 205 GHz (i.e., wavelengths of 4.8, 1.64, and 1.46 mm). The observations of chlorine monoxide are of particular importance, since this gas is a key reactant in the chlorine chemical cycle that destroys ozone; microwave measurements are essential for observations of this species, and MLS is unique among the UARS instruments in providing microwave sensitivity. The MLS observations will provide, for the first time, a global data set on chlorine monoxide in the upper atmosphere.
MLS will also determine the altitudes of atmospheric pressure levels. Because MLS is a microwave instrument, it employs an antenna rather than optical devices to gather radiation.
(4) HALOE
Through measurements of atmospheric infrared absorption at wavelengths from 2.43 to 10.25 microns, the Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE) will determine the vertical distributions of hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids as well as those of methane, carbon dioxide, ozone, water vapor, and members of the nitrogen family. Both of the halogen acids are reservoir species, and HALOE will be especially effective in measuring their concentrations.
The HALOE experiment uses samples of several of the gases to be observed as absorbing filters in front of the detectors to obtain a high degree of spectral resolution. The instrument also utilizes broadband filters to detect gases for which such high spectral resolution is not required.
During every UARS orbit, at times of spacecraft sunrise and sunset, HALOE will be pointed toward the Sun and measure the absorption of energy along this line of sight. There are 28 solar occultation opportunities per day, providing data for 14 different longitudes in each of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
ATMOSPHERIC WINDS
Dynamical processes have a profound effect upon the chemical composition of the upper atmosphere. The high-altitude distribution of chemical species--including ozone and the source molecules, free radicals, and reservoir/sink molecules that enter into ozone reaction chains--therefore cannot be understood through photochemical studies alone. Conversely, the processes of upper-atmosphere dynamics are highly sensitive to variations in chemical composition, being driven by solar heating of the ozone layer as well as by the upward propagation of energy from the troposphere.
Upper-atmosphere winds can be measured directly by ground-based radars and lidars and by balloon- and rocket-borne sounding instruments. Such techniques permit study of small-scale dynamical processes and long-term monitoring of atmospheric dynamics over fixed deployment sites; however, they are intrinsically limited to a few geographic locations. For investigations of the global-scale dynamical processes that determine the distribution of ozone and other upper-atmosphere constituents, satellite data are required.
Wind Measurements by UARS
The UARS mission will provide the first direct, globalscale measurements of the horizontal wind field in the upper atmosphere. With the aid of theoretical investigations and numerical modeling, the UARS data will shed new light on fundamental questions in stratospheric and mesospheric dynamics. Such questions include the relative importance of various types of wave motion as a function of altitude, the relative roles of tropospheric energy fluxes and in situ energy generation by solar heating, the factors affecting the breakdown of polar winter circulation patterns in the stratosphere, and the mechanisms responsible for the warm winter and cold summer mesopause. In combination with UARS measurements of atmospheric composition, these dynamical results may also help scientists to understand the processes responsible for development of the Antarctic "ozone hole" during the Southern Hemisphere spring.
Previous satellite studies have furnished indirect estimates of the upper-atmosphere wind field through a method that utilizes observed temperature profiles and theoretical approximations. The CLAES and ISAMS experiments aboard UARS will also yield indirect wind velocity estimates by this method, as well as observations of chemical constituents.
In addition, two other UARS instruments--a High Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI) and a Wind Imaging Interferometer (WINDII)--will provide direct observations of wind velocity through measurements of the Doppler shifts of selected emission and absorption lines. These shifts will be measured in two different directions, yielding two components of the wind velocity relative to the spacecraft; the true wind velocity can then be calculated from the observing geometry and a knowledge of the spacecraft velocity. The spacecraft motion combined with vertical scanning by the instruments will produce a three-dimensional global map of the upper-atmosphere wind field.
Since atmospheric emission and absorption characteristics vary strongly with altitude, a number of atomic and molecular spectral features must be used to obtain a wide range of altitudes. Moreover, in both experiments, the Doppler shift that arises from spacecraft motion must be separated from the shifts caused by atmospheric motions. High spectral resolution and a stable observing platform are required.
(5) HRDI
At altitudes below about 45 km, the High Resolution Doppler Imager will observe the Doppler shifts of spectral lines within the atmospheric band system of molecular oxygen to determine the wind field. There are no sharp emission lines in the radiance of the Earth's limb at such altitudes, but the oxygen bands contain many lines that appear as deep absorption features in the brilliant spectrum of scattered sunlight. A triple-etalon Fabry-Perot interferometer, serving as a high-resolution spectral filter, will ensure efficient rejection of the intense emission continuum outside the absorption lines. HRDI will exploit these daytime absorption features to provide wind data for the stratosphere and upper troposphere to an accuracy of 5 m/sec or better.
At altitudes above about 60 km, HRDI will observe emission lines of neutral and ionized atomic oxygen in the visible and near-infrared spectral regions by the same interferometric technique. Unlike the molecular absorption lines, however, the emission lines are observable both day and night. These measurements will furnish the wind field in the mesosphere and thermosphere to an accuracy of 15 m/sec or better.
The HRDI instrument incorporates a baffled, off-axis telescope on a two-axis gimballed structure, whose motion is controlled by a microprocessor. An altitude scan is typically executed first in the direction forward of the spacecraft velocity. The telescope is then rotated backward for a second altitude scan, which yields measurements of the same atmospheric region some 7 minutes after the first scan; this interval is short compared to characteristic timescales for changes in the wind field. The HRDI field of view allows a vertical resolution of 4 km at the Earth's limb.
(6) WINDII
The Wind Imaging Interferometer utilizes emission lines for the basic Doppler-shift measurements. In addition to lines of neutral and ionized atomic oxygen, these include two lines of the OH molecule and a molecular-oxygen line. WINDII will obtain measurements both day and night at altitudes above 80 km.
The WINDII spectral filter is a high-resolution Michelson interferometer. The instrument consists of a telescope, the interferometer, and a detector array. The telescope views 45deg. and 135deg. from the spacecraft velocity vector simultaneously. In normal operation, the detector provides a vertical resolution of about 4 km and a horizontal resolution of some 20 km. Wind velocity accuracy within 10 m/sec is expected in the altitude range between 80 and 300 km.
ENERGY INPUTS
The upper atmosphere receives energy from the Sun via two sources: ultraviolet radiation and magnetospheric charged particles. These energy sources are central to the chemical processes that create and destroy ozone, as well as to the heating and dynamics of this region. The UARS observing program will provide the measurements necessary for determining the net effect of the solar energy inputs on the amount and distribution of ozone in the stratosphere.
Solar Radiation
Although ultraviolet radiation constitutes only about 5% of the total energy emitted by the Sun, it is the major energy source for the stratosphere and mesosphere playing a dominant role in both energy balance and chemical composition. An accurate knowledge of the solar ultraviolet spectrum and its variability with time is therefore necessary to test models of the upper atmosphere. Measurements to date have established absolute solar-flux values within +/-30% in the region from 140 to 210 nm, with better accuracy at longer wavelengths. However, these measurements are not accurate enough to permit study of atmospheric responses to changes in solar ultraviolet output arising from flares, solar rotation, or the 11-year solar activity cycle. A new generation of solar ultraviolet observations is urgently needed.
The radiation wavelengths of primary interest lie between 115 and 300 nm which, because of atmospheric absorption, can only be observed above the stratosphere. Spacecraft measurements in this spectral region are difficult, however, because the radiation itself may degrade instrument and detector performance. The two UARS instruments that will measure the solar ultraviolet spectrum have therefore been specially designed to ensure accurate, long-term calibration.
Charged Particles
The Sun is also a source of high-energy charged particles, primarily electrons and protons, which originate in such events as solar flares and stream outward through the solar system. Many of those reaching the Earth become trapped in the Earth's magnetosphere. When the magnetosphere becomes disturbed--for example, by a magnetic storm--large numbers of these trapped particles are precipitated into the upper atmosphere, producing aurorae as they interact with the tenuous gases of the thermosphere and upper mesosphere. The most energetic of the charged particles can penetrate into the stratosphere, where they initiate some of the same chemical reactions as sunlight. Observations of solar ultraviolet radiation must therefore be supplemented by measurements of the effects of such particles, particularly those of high energy.
(7) SUSIM
The Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), to be mounted on the UARS solar/stellar positioning platform, will measure solar ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength range from 120 to 400 nm with a resolution down to 0.1 nm. The instrument is designed to provide its own long-term, absolute calibration light sources to track any change in instrument response during spaceflight.
SUSIM incorporates two spectrometers, seven detectors, and a set of four deuterium ultraviolet calibration lamps. One spectrometer will observe the Sun and measure the variation in solar ultraviolet flux as a function of time, while the second will monitor the calibration lamps. One of the four deuterium lamps within the instrument will serve as a calibration source. Once each day, this ultraviolet lamp will be turned on and positioned sequentially in front of each spectrometer. Stability in the output of this primary deuterium calibration lamp will be verified against the other three lamps, which will be utilized weekly, monthly, and annually for additional confidence in the calibration.
(8) SOLSTICE
Also mounted on the solar/stellar positioning platform, the Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE) will measure solar ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength range from 1 15 to 430 nm with a resolution of 0.12 nm. This instrument has the unique ability to compare the solar ultraviolet output with the ultraviolet radiation of stable bright blue stars, using the same optics. These stars thus constitute the standards against which the solar irradiance is measured. In the future, instruments similar to SOLSTICE can be placed in orbit to continue measurements of the solar output relative to these stellar calibration standards, thus creating a record of the long-term variation of the solar ultraviolet spectrum.
The experiment consists of a spectrometer with three spectral channels, each with a separate grating and photomultiplier tube. SOLSTICE will be pointed toward the Sun during the daylight portion of each orbit, and toward one of the calibration stars during most of the nighttime portion of the orbit. To accommodate the large difference in signal strength between the solar and stellar measurements, SOLSTICE can vary the duration of the measurement from 1 second to 17 minutes, the spectral bandpass from 0.1 to 5.0 nm, and the area of the entrance slit by a factor of 10,000.
(9) PEM
The Particle Environment Monitor (PEM) instrument will determine the type, amount, energy, and distribution of charged particles injected into the Earth's thermosphere, mesosphere, and stratosphere. PEM will utilize three separate boom-mounted sensors to measure electrons with energies from 1 eV to 5 MeV, protons with energies from 1 eV to 150 MeV, and the strength of the Earth's magnetic field--all in the vicinity of the spacecraft.
To complement these in situ particle measurements PEM will include a 16-element array of X-ray detectors to provide wide spatial coverage of the energy injected into the upper atmosphere by high-energy electrons. As these electrons are slowed in their passage through the atmosphere, X rays are emitted and scattered in all directions. PEM will provide X-ray images in the energy range from 2 to 50 keV, leading to the reconstruction of the global, three-dimensional energy input spectrum of electrons up to 1 MeV in energy.
UARS DATA MANAGEMENT
The UARS data set will furnish by far the most comprehensive and detailed picture yet obtained of the chemistry, dynamics, and energy balance of the upper atmosphere. Optimum utilization of this invaluable resource requires extensive participation by the scientific community and the provision of a highly capable ground data system. A key feature of the UARS data management plan is the linking of NASA central computers with a network of versatile minicomputers--the Remote Analysis Computers, or RACs--located at the scientists' home institutions
Scientific Analysis
One of the vital elements of the UARS mission is the early involvement and active participation of theoretical scientists representing all aspects of the study of the stratosphere and mesosphere. In addition to the theorists associated with the instrument investigations, there are also ten theoretical groups, each headed by a Principal Investigator, with specific areas of responsibility for data analysis and interpretation.
During the prelaunch phase, these scientists are developing data-analysis techniques and refining theoretical models to simulate upper-atmosphere radiative, chemical, and dynamical processes. Some of the individual models may eventually be combined into more extensive models that will realistically simulate the complex coupling of these processes in the stratosphere and mesosphere.
Throughout the flight phase, the investigators will analyze incoming data and update observing strategies to maximize the scientific return of the mission. This approach will be particularly important for initiating special observations in response to unusual events, such as solar flares, volcanic eruptions, or sudden atmospheric warmings.
After termination of mission operations, scientists will be able to carry out analyses and modeling studies based on a very extensive set of atmospheric data, including comprehensive correlative data as well as results returned by the UARS instrument complement.
The Ground Data System
The UARS ground data system consists of (1) the Central Data Handling Facility (CDHF) located at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, (2) minicomputer-based Remote Analysis Computers (RACs) at the sites of the Principal Investigators, and (3) a dedicated electronic communications system to connect the RACs with the CDHF.
Telemetry data from tape recorders aboard the UARS spacecraft will be transmitted through the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) to the Data Capture Facility (DCF) at GSFC. The DCF will perform quality checks, time-reverse the tape-recorded signals, remove redundant data, and transmit the results to the CDHF. There, programs that have been developed by the instrument investigators using the RACs and transferred to the CDHF will convert the data into a form suitable for scientific analysis. These processed data will be catalogued and stored in the data base associated with the CDHF.
The CDHF will be used primarily for (1) production processing of all the scientific data received from the spacecraft, (2) interactive processing and/or analysis of small subsets of the data by investigators using RACs, and (3) maintenance of the UARS data base for access initially by the UARS Principal Investigators and eventually by the scientific community at large. Most of the data at the CDHF will be stored on-line to facilitate rapid access by users. A catalog of data attributes, maintained in a data base management system, will permit searches of such characteristics as measurement parameter, time of observation, instrument, data level, and level of validation.
Prior to launch, the RACs are used to develop the programs needed to convert the telemetry data into scientifically useful information. After launch, the instrument investigators will use their RACs for data validation and refinement of their processing software. All of the investigators will use their RACs to gain access to data at the CDHF and for the geophysical analysis of the data.
In some cases, the RACs will be linked with larger computers for more complicated scientific analyses or for inclusion in sophisticated atmospheric models. The dedicated electronics communications system that connects the RACs with the CDHF will also allow the UARS investigators access to other scientific data networks.
Sunday, June 28, 2009
Castor-oil Plants Genetically Altered To Produce New Bio-lubricants
Almeria-based researchers, led by Federico García Maroto, have genetically altered the castor-oil plant so as to use it as a factory to produce bio lubricants.
So far, scientists of the University of Almeria have identified and provided a series of genes that are responsible of the biosynthesis of lipids that can be used to obtain transgenic castor-oil plants with an acid profile appropriate for the different requirements of bio lubricants. More specifically, the idea is to obtain an oil with a higher concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic and palmitic), which are the compounds required to classify an oil as a bio lubricant.
Another one of the objectives to be attained is the identification and characterization of specific regulatory genetic sequences, called promoters, which drive the expression of such genes to the seeds of castor-oil transgenic plants. A promoter is a specific part of the gene responsible for the creation or accumulation of a desired product in certain tissue or organ.
So far, scientists of the University of Almeria have identified and provided a series of genes that are responsible of the biosynthesis of lipids that can be used to obtain transgenic castor-oil plants with an acid profile appropriate for the different requirements of bio lubricants. More specifically, the idea is to obtain an oil with a higher concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic and palmitic), which are the compounds required to classify an oil as a bio lubricant.
Another one of the objectives to be attained is the identification and characterization of specific regulatory genetic sequences, called promoters, which drive the expression of such genes to the seeds of castor-oil transgenic plants. A promoter is a specific part of the gene responsible for the creation or accumulation of a desired product in certain tissue or organ.
Hint of conservation push brightens whaling stalemate
The International Whaling Commission(IWC) may be shifting towards a more conservation-oriented role after this week backing an ambitious Australian plan for non-lethal whale research.
"It's part of a move by the IWC from being a whalers' club to being a whale conservation body," says Patrick Ramage, director of the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW). "There's a bit of a sea change going on at the commission."
Presented by Australian environment minister Peter Garrett, the AU$1.5-million ($1.2 million) plan aims to demonstrate the value of non-lethal methods for tracking and researching whales. It contrasts with Japan's controversial "research" program, which has been described as a front for commercial whaling
"It's part of a move by the IWC from being a whalers' club to being a whale conservation body," says Patrick Ramage, director of the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW). "There's a bit of a sea change going on at the commission."
Presented by Australian environment minister Peter Garrett, the AU$1.5-million ($1.2 million) plan aims to demonstrate the value of non-lethal methods for tracking and researching whales. It contrasts with Japan's controversial "research" program, which has been described as a front for commercial whaling
Europe dodges the carbon pollution issue
European environment ministers have sidestepped the key emissions reduction strategy of classifying carbon dioxide as a pollutant during consideration of new laws to limit industrial pollution. The move further questions Europe's claim to be a leader in climate action, with California requiring carbon pollution mitigation for the last two years and reclassification under consideration elsewhere.
The EU Environment Council reached a common position on the new Industrial Emissions Directive. The draft law overhauls the framework for controlling pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust from thousands of industrial installations across Europe, combining and strengthening seven earlier pieces of legislation.
WWF is calling for carbon dioxide standards to be added to the proposal, in order to respond adequately to the increasing scale and urgency of the global climate crisis. Such a move could cut Europe’s total greenhouse gas emissions by around a quarter over the next two decades. But EU ministers failed on this occasion to seize the opportunity
The EU Environment Council reached a common position on the new Industrial Emissions Directive. The draft law overhauls the framework for controlling pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust from thousands of industrial installations across Europe, combining and strengthening seven earlier pieces of legislation.
WWF is calling for carbon dioxide standards to be added to the proposal, in order to respond adequately to the increasing scale and urgency of the global climate crisis. Such a move could cut Europe’s total greenhouse gas emissions by around a quarter over the next two decades. But EU ministers failed on this occasion to seize the opportunity
Deserts crossing Mediterranean
The Sahara Desert is crossing the Mediterranean, according to Italian environmental protection group Legambiente which warns that the livelihoods of 6.5 million people living along its shores could be at risk."Desertification isn't limited to Africa," said Legambiente Vice President Sebastiano Venneri."Without a serious change of direction in economic and environmental policies, the risk will become concrete and irreversible."A recent report by Legambiente estimated that 74 million acres of fertile land along the Mediterranean were turning to desert as the result of overexploited land and water resources.
Legambiente said that southern Italy was at severe risk in addition to the islands of Sicily and Sardinia where 11% of all arable land showed signs of drying up. ''Semi-arid coastal regions like southern Italy are prone to the effects of desertification due to farmers' dependence on water from underground aquifers instead of rainfall,'' said Legambiente spokesman Giorgio Zampetti. According to Zampetti, pumping too much fresh water out of these underground deposits can result in seawater leaking in to replace it, effectively poisoning the groundwater.
As an example of the long-term consequences, Legambiente pointed to Egypt where it said brackish groundwater had compromised half the country's farmland.
"The south of Italy isn't the only part of the country at risk," added Zampetti. "Aquifers around the Po Delta in northern Italy have also begun showing signs of saltwater contamination." Experts said that the Po River, which is Italy's longest waterway and nearly dries up in parts when industrial consumption peaks, is one of the most visible examples of desertifying climate change in Italy. Italy is not the only country in Europe losing fertile land.
Legambiente estimated that desertification affects more than a fifth of the Iberian Peninsula with early indicators also present along the French Riviera.
Legambiente said that southern Italy was at severe risk in addition to the islands of Sicily and Sardinia where 11% of all arable land showed signs of drying up. ''Semi-arid coastal regions like southern Italy are prone to the effects of desertification due to farmers' dependence on water from underground aquifers instead of rainfall,'' said Legambiente spokesman Giorgio Zampetti. According to Zampetti, pumping too much fresh water out of these underground deposits can result in seawater leaking in to replace it, effectively poisoning the groundwater.
As an example of the long-term consequences, Legambiente pointed to Egypt where it said brackish groundwater had compromised half the country's farmland.
"The south of Italy isn't the only part of the country at risk," added Zampetti. "Aquifers around the Po Delta in northern Italy have also begun showing signs of saltwater contamination." Experts said that the Po River, which is Italy's longest waterway and nearly dries up in parts when industrial consumption peaks, is one of the most visible examples of desertifying climate change in Italy. Italy is not the only country in Europe losing fertile land.
Legambiente estimated that desertification affects more than a fifth of the Iberian Peninsula with early indicators also present along the French Riviera.
Saturday, June 27, 2009
Introduction and map of Ganga
The Ganga (गगां) is a major river of the Indian subcontinent rising in the Himalaya Mountains and flowing about 2,510 km (1,560 mi) generally eastward through a vast plain to the Bay of Bengal. On its 1,560-mi (2,510-km) course, it flows southeast through the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. In central Bangladesh it is joined by the Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. Their combined waters (called the Padma River) empty into the Bay of Bengal and form a delta 220 mi (354 km) wide, which is shared by India and Bangladesh. Its plain is one of the most fertile and densely populated regions in the world. The Ganges alone drains an area of over a million square km with a population of over 407 million. Millions depend on water from the holy river for several things: drinking, bathing, agriculture, industry and other household chores. Ganga river known as Ganga Maata (गगां माता) or Mother Ganges is revered as a goddess whose purity cleanses the sins of the faithful and aids the dead on their path toward heaven. In most Hindu families, a vial of water from the Ganga is kept in every house. It is believed that drinking water from the Ganga with one's last breath will take the soul to heaven. Hindus also believe life is incomplete without bathing in the Ganga at least once in their lifetime. Some of the most important Hindu festivals and religious congregations are celebrated on the banks of the river Ganga such as the Kumbh Mela or the Kumbh Fair and the Chhat Puja. Kumbh Mela is the largest religious gathering on Earth for Hindu peoples, where around 70 million Hindus from around the world participated in the last Kumbh Mela at the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad). The upper Ganges supplies water to extensive irrigation works. The river passes the holy bathing sites at Haridwar, Allahabad (where the Yamuna river enters the Ganges), and Varanasi. Below Allahabad the Ganges becomes a slow, meandering stream with shifting channels. Because of its location near major population centers, however, the river is highly polluted. The Ganges collects large amounts of human pollutants as it flows through highly populous areas. These populous areas, and other people down stream, are then exposed to these potentially hazardous accumulations.
Ganga India's national river The mighty Ganga is not only the river but much more to the millions for whom the Ganga is a symbol of faith, hope, substance and sanity. Therefore the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh declared on November 4, 2008 that henceforth the Ganga would be known as India's 'national river'. The Prime minister has also announced the proposal to set up a separate high powered Ganga River Basin Authority to stop its pollution and degradation. Chaired by the Prime minister, the authority would have as the members the chief ministers of states through which the river flows, besides working closely with ministers of water resources, environment and forests, urban development and others as well as agencies working on river conservation and pollution management.
Source of Ganga River In the Uttarakhand Himalayas where glacial water flowing from a cave at Gaumukh, is the origin of the Bhagirathi river. Gaumukh has been described as a desolate place at an altitude of about 4,000 meters (13,000 feet). Twenty-three kilometers from Gaumukh, the river reaches Gangotri, the first town on its path. Thousands of visitors come to Gangotri each year, from every part of the world. The river which joins the Alaknanda river at Devaprayag, also in the Uttarakhand Himalayas, to form the Ganga. The Ganga then flows through the Himalayan valleys and emerges into the north Indian plain at the town of Haridwar. Recent pictures taken by Google Earth via satellite have confirmed that an eight-km stretch of the Bhagirathi river has dried up. The river is shown snaking through the Himalayan mountains as one long, sandy stretch minus any water. Other rivers emanating from the Gangotri glacier, including the Bhilangana, the Assi Ganga and the Alaknanda, all tributaries of the Ganga river, are also drying up. Since the river Ganga (Bhagirathi) is still emanating from the ice cave (Gaumukh) of Gangotri Glacier, no steps are required to be taken at present for bringing back the flow of river Ganga. As far as the recession of the glacier is concerned it is a part of natural phenomena and cannot be stopped by using short term artificial measures. This information was given by Union Minister for Science & Technology and Earth Sciences, Shri Kapil Sibal, in a written reply to a question by Shri Vijoy Krishna in the Lok Sabha on April 29, 2008.
In the Uttarakhand Himalayas where glacial water flowing from a cave at Gaumukh, is the origin of the Bhagirathi river. Twenty-three km. from Gaumukh, the river reaches Gangotri, the first town on its path.
Ganga River in plains On its 1,560-mi (2,510-km) course in plains, Ganga flows southeast through the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The Ganga passing some of the most populous cities of India, including Kanpur , Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Kolkata. The Yamuna, which originates less than a hundred miles east of the Bhagirathi, flows parallel to the Ganga and a little to the south for most of its course before merging with the Ganga at the holy city of Allahabad, also known as Triveni Sangam. New Delhi, capital of India, and Agra, site of the Taj Mahal, are two of the major cities on the Yamuna river. The largest tributary to the Ganga is the Ghaghara, which meets it before Patna, in Bihar, bearing much of the Himalayan glacier melt from Northern Nepal. The Gandak, which comes from near Katmandu, is another big Himalayan tributary. Other important rivers that merge with the Ganga are the Son, which originates in the hills of Madhya Pradesh, the Gomti which flows past Lucknow, and then meets with the river Chambal. On its way it passes the towns of Mirzapur, Varanasi, Patna and Bhagalpur. At Bhagalpur, the river meanders past the Rajmahal Hills, and beings to change course southwards. At Pakaur, the river begins its first attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the River Bhagirathi, which goes on to form the River Hooghly. Close to the border with Bangladesh, the Farakka Barrage, built in 1974 controls the flow of the Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linking the Hooghly to keep it relatively silt free. After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges is known as Padma River till it is joined by the Jamuna River the largest distributaries of the Brahmaputra. Further downstream, the Ganges is fed by the Meghna River, the second largest distributaries of the Brahmaputra and takes on its name. Fanning out into the 350 km (220 mi) wide Ganges Delta, it empties out into the Bay of Bengal. The delta of the Ganga, or rather, that of the Hooghly and the Padma, is a vast ragged swamp forest (42,000 sq km) called the Sunderbans.
Ganga river in plains Ganga river in plains
Pollution in Ganga River Today, over 29 cities, 70 towns, and thousands of villages extend along the Ganges' banks. Nearly all of their sewage - over 1.3 billion liters per day - goes directly into the river, along with thousands of animal carcasses, mainly cattle. Another 260 million liters of industrial waste are added to this by hundreds of factories along the river's banks. Municipal sewage constitutes 80 per cent by volume of the total waste dumped into the Ganges, and industries contribute about 15 percent. The majority of the Ganges pollution is organic waste, sewage, trash, food, and human and animal remains. Over the past century, city populations along the Ganges have grown at a tremendous rate, while waste-control infrastructure has remained relatively unchanged. Recent water samples collected in Varanasi revealed fecal-coliform counts of about 50,000 bacteria per 100 milliliters of water, 10,000% higher than the government standard for safe river bathing. The result of this pollution is an array of water-borne diseases including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid and amoebic dysentery. An estimated 80% of all health problems and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to water-borne diseases. The sacred practice of depositing human remains in the Ganges also poses health threats because of the unsustainable rate at which partially cremated cadavers are dumped. In Varanasi, some 40,000 cremations are performed each year, most on wood pyres that do not completely consume the body. Along with the remains of these traditional funerals, there are thousands more who cannot afford cremation and whose bodies are simply thrown into the Ganges. In addition, the carcasses of thousands of dead cattle, which are sacred to Hindus, go into the river each year. An inadequate cremation procedures contributes to a large number of partially burnt or unburnt corpses floating down the Ganga. The industrial pollutants also a major source of contamination in the Ganges. A total of 146 industries are reported to be located along the river Ganga between Rishikesh and Prayagraj. 144 of these are in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) and 2 in Uttrakhand. The major polluting industries on the Ganga are the leather industries, especially near Kanpur, which use large amounts of Chromium and other toxic chemical waste, and much of it finds its way into the meager flow of the Ganga. From the plains to the sea, pharmaceutical companies, electronics plants, textile and paper industries, tanneries, fertilizer manufacturers and oil refineries discharge effluent into the river. This hazardous waste includes hydrochloric acid, mercury and other heavy metals, bleaches and dyes, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls highly toxic compounds that accumulate in animal and human tissue. However, industry is not the only source of pollution. Sheer volume of waste - estimated at nearly 1 billion litres per day - of mostly untreated raw sewage - is a significant factor. Runoff from farms in the Ganges basin adds chemical fertilizers and pesticides such as DDT, which is banned in the United States because of its toxic and carcinogenic effects on humans and wildlife. Damming the river or diverting its water, mainly for irrigation purposes, also adds to the pollution crisis.
Ganga action plan The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was initiated by the late Prime Minster Indira Gandhi, who called for a comprehensive survey of the situation in 1979. In 1985, the government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan, which was devised to clean up the river in selected areas by installing sewage treatment plants and threatening fines and litigation against industries that pollute. The 2006 official audit of the Ganga Action Plan has revealed that it has met only 39 per cent of its sewage treatment target. Moreover, the plan is behind schedule by over 13 years. According to the legal counsel, Central Pollution Control Board, Mr Vijay Panjawani, even after spending Rs 24,000 crore, the Ganga remains as dirty as ever. A total of Rs.740.11 crore has been released to different States so far for implementation of schemes for the river Ganga under Ganga Action Plan (GAP). The GAP Phase – I, the first attempt of the Government of India to undertake pollution abatement works in the river Ganga, was launched in the year 1985 with the objective of treating 882 million litres per day (mld) of sewage and improving its water quality to bathing class standards. This Phase was declared completed in March, 2000 with the creation of sewage treatment apacity of 865 mld. Since GAP Phase – I did not cover the pollution load of Ganga fully, GAP Phase – II which includes plans for its major tributaries namely, Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda, besides Ganga, was approved in stages from 1993 onwards. The above two phases of Ganga Action Plan have continued since their inception with GAP-I having been completed in 2000 and GAP-II is presently under implementation. A total of 146 industries are reported to be located along the river Ganga between Rishikesh and Prayagraj. 144 of these are in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) and 2 in Uttrakhand. Of the grossly polluting industries in U.P., 82 industries have installed Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and are reported to be complying with the standards, 27 industries, though have installed ETPs are not reported to be complying with the prescribed standards and 35 industries are reported to have been closed. The Central Pollution Control Board has issued directions to the State Pollution Control Boards under Section 18 1(b) of Water Act, 1974 for taking appropriate legal action against the defaulting industries. In the State of Uttrakhand, of the 2 Grossly Polluting Industries, one is reported to have installed the ETP and the other is reported to have been closed. As regards the number of drains falling into the river in the towns covered under the Ganga Action Plan and number of identified Gross Polluting Industries which discharge their effluent in the river between Rishikesh and Prayagraj, the same is given in the Annexure. GAP Phase-I was declared closed in March, 2000. Since GAP Phase-I did not cover the pollution load of Ganga fully, GAP Phase II which included Plans for Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda besides Ganga was approved in various stages from 1993 onwards. The present sanctioned cost of works for Ganga river (main stem) under GAP Phase-II is Rs.564 crore against which an amount of Rs.373.58 crore has been released to the State Implementing Agencies. Out of a total of 311 schemes sanctioned, 185 schemes have been completed so far and the balance schemes are in different stages of implementation. A citizen-based Sankat Mochan Foundation, started in Varanasi in 1982, has made great strides toward a lasting clean-up of the Ganges. With a dual identity as Hindu priest and civil engineer, the organization's founder, Veer Bhadra Mishra, has approached the problem from both a scientific and a spiritual perspective. In collaboration with engineers at the University of California, Berkeley, Mishra has proposed an alternative sewage-treatment plan for Varanasi that is compatible with the climate and conditions of India. The advanced integrated wastewater oxidation pond system would store sewage in a series of ponds and use bacteria and algae to break down waste and purify the water. On June 23, 2008 West Bengal has been allocated Rs 249.68 crore under the second phase of Ganga Action Plan, (GAP-II) to cover 196 schemes in 31 towns of the state as part of the ongoing efforts to clean up the River Ganga. The schemes devised by GAP-II, which now falls under the National River Conservation Development (NRCD), would include interception and diversion of raw sewage, construction of sewage treatment plants, crematoria, river front development, afforestation and public participation. The GAP was a programme launched by the Centre in April 1985 in order to reduce the pollution load on the river Ganga. National Ganga River Basin Authority On November 4, 2008 Government of India declared Ganga as a 'national river' and also to set up a high powered Ganga River Basin Authority to protect the ancient river from pollution and other degradation. On February 20, 2009 the Minister of State for Environment Namo Narain Meena said the Authority would be responsible for addressing the problem of pollution in the river in a holistic and comprehensive manner. " This will include water quality, minimum ecological flows, sustainable access and other issues relevant to river ecology and management."
History The Ganga is mentioned in the Rig-Veda, the earliest of the Hindu scriptures. The Ganga is mentioned in the nadistuti (Rig Veda 10.75), which lists the rivers from east to west. In RV 6.45.31, the word Ganga is also mentioned, but it is not clear if the reference is to the river.RV 3.58.6 says that "your ancient home, your auspicious friendship, O Heroes, your wealth is on the banks of the Jahnavi (JahnAvyAm)". This verse could possibly refer to the Ganga. In RV 1.116.18-19, the Jahnavi and the Gangetic dolphin occur in two adjacent verses. During the early Indo-Aryan Ages, the Indus and the Saraswati were the major rivers, not the Ganga. But the later three Vedas seem to give much more importance to the Ganga, as shown by its numerous references. According to the Hindu Purans, Goddess Ganga used to exist only in Heaven. Then prince Bhagirath worshipped Ganga to descend on earth. This is why Ganga is also known as Bhagirathi. In the Mahabharath this story is also mentioned. In fact, Ganga is a major character in the Mahabharath, where she's the mother of Bhisma. Another version of the myth tells us that Ganga descended to earth to purify the souls of the 60,000 sons of an ancient ruler, King Sagara, who had been burnt to ashes by an enraged ascetic.
Ganga in Hindu religion According to Hindus the river Ganga is sacred. It is worshipped by Hindus and personified as a goddess, who holds an important place in the Hindu religion. Hindu belief holds that bathing in the river on certain occasions causes the forgiveness of sins and helps attain salvation. Many people believe that this will come from bathing in Ganga at any time. People travel from distant places to immerse the ashes of their kin in the waters of the Ganga; this immersion also is believed to send the ashes to heaven. Several places sacred to Hindus lie along the banks of the river Ganga, including Haridwar and Kashi. People carry sacred water from the Ganges that is sealed in copper pots after making the pilgrimage to Kashi. It is believed that drinking water from the Ganga with one's last breath will take the soul to heaven.Hindus also believe life is incomplete without bathing in the Ganga at least once in their lifetime. In most Hindu families, a vial of water from the Ganga is kept in every house. This is done because it is auspicious to have water of the Holy Ganga in the house, and also if someone is dying, that person will be able to drink its water. Many Hindus believe that the water from the Ganga can cleanse a person's soul of all past sins, and that it can also cure the ill. The ancient scriptures mention that the water of Ganges carries the blessings of the Lord's feet. Hence mother Ganges is also known as Visnupadi (Emanating from the Lotus feet of Supreme Lord Sri Visnu). Some of the most important Hindu festivals and religious congregations are celebrated on the banks of the river Ganga such as the Kumbh Mela or the Kumbh Fair and the Chhat Puja. Around 70 million Hindus from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela at the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad). The most important city sacred to Hinduism on the banks of the River Ganga is Varanasi or Banaras. It has hundreds of temples along the banks of the Ganga which often get flooded during the rains. This city, especially along the banks of the Ganga, is an important place of worship for the Hindus as well as a cremation ground.
Lord Shiva (शिव) Goddess Ganga
Tehri dam The most controversial Tehri dam is the main dam of the Tehri Hydro Project on the rivers Bhagirathi (one of the major tributary of the river Ganga) located near Tehri in Uttarakhand. It is a multi purpose river valley project, towering 855 feet (261 m). The main dam at Tehri is the 8th tallest dam in the world. The dam's projected capabilities include a power generation capacity of 2400 MW, irrigation stabilization to an area of 6,000 km², an additional area of 2,700 km² of irrigation stabilization and a supply of 270 million gallons (1.23 million cubic metres) of drinking water to industrialized cities in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The dam project was approved in 1972 and construction was started in 1978. The dam is operational since July 2006. Until March 2008, a sum of Rs 8,298 crore had been spent on the dam, far outweighing the initial planned costs. Its projected power generating capacity was 2,400 MW. Currently, it is generating only 1,000 MW, less than half its capacity. According to Hindu mythology, river Bhagirathi is the actual Ganga, though the name of Ganga is assumed only after the river Bhagirathi meets river Alaknanda at Devprayag. Cutting off the water supply of Bhagirathi to such low quantity means that after travelling more than 80 km from this point, water of Bhagirathi will be hardly reaching Ganga. It is predicted that after 20 years the mighty Ganga will be reduced to a trickle and cease to exist for the 150 million people in this region. The Tehri dam is located in the Central Himalayan Seismic Gap, a major geologic fault zone. This region was the site of a magnitude 6.8 earthquake in October 1991, epicentred 50 km from the location of the dam. Khumb Mela The Kumbh Mela, the largest religious gathering on earth, is held every 12 years on the banks of the Triveni Sangam - the confluence of the holy rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati. The Mela alternates between Nasik, Allahabad, Ujjain and Haridwar every three years. The one celebrated at the Holy Sangam in Allahabad is the largest and holiest of them. The Mela is attended by millions of devotees, including Sadhus. A holy dip in the sacred waters is believed to cleanse the soul. The Ardh or 'half Kumbh' Mela, is held every six years on the banks of Sangam. Second only to the Kumbh in sanctity, the Ardh Kumbh also attracts devotes in the millions, from all over the world. Magh Mela is an annual event held at the Sangam. In Hindu religion Kumbh is the symbol of spiritual awakening. It is the symbol of the confluence of nature and humanity. Kumbh is the source of all energy. Kumbh makes humankind realize this world and the other, sins and blessings, wisdom and ignorance, darkness and light.
Tehri is the world’s 8th tallest dam. Until March 2008, a sum of Rs 8,298 crore had been spent on the dam, far outweighing the initial planned costs. Its projected power generating capacity was 2,400 MW. Currently, it is generating only 1,000 MW, less than half its capacity. Until March 2008, a sum of Rs 8,298 crore had been spent on the dam. Traditional procession of Akharas, shining swords of naga, sages in Shahi Snan (royal bath) between elephants, horses, musical instruments, horse race attracts lakhs of devotees to visit Kumbh.
Economy The flora and fauna found along Ganga banks are vital to nutrient and water conservation, and control of soil erosion. 451 million people living in its basin are directly and indirectly dependent upon the Ganga. Watered by the monsoons, this silt-enriched land produces a significant portion of the rice, wheat, millet, sugar, and barley needed to feed the world's second most populous nation. The rain feds the land, dilutes the river's muddy stream, flushes out excess sediment and suspended matter, and revitalizes the river where its flow was sluggish. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area. The Ganges can swell a thousand-fold during the monsoons. Haridwar, Allahabad, and Varanasi are the the source of tourism and attract thousands of pilgrims to its waters. Thousands of Hindu pilgrims arrive at these three towns to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation.Ecology The Ganga has been described by the World Wildlife Fund as one of the world’s top ten rivers at risk. It has over 140 fish species, 90 amphibian species, and five areas which support birds found nowhere else in the world. According to studies reported by environmental engineer D.S. Bhargava of the University of Roorkee, the Ganges decomposes organic waste 15 to 25 times faster than other rivers. The Ganges has an extraordinarily high rate of reaeration, the process by which it absorbs atmospheric oxygen. When organic waste is dropped into it, as much as 60 per cent of the BOD is processed within an hour. The water quality samples also suggest that the Ganges retains DO much longer than does water from other rivers. In a recent finding, the scientists have observed that various species of fishes which helped in keeping the river water clean are facing extinction. In its place, numerous marine species are thriving in the river. Marine species like Sea Bass, Rostellascaris, Xenentodon Cancilla, Clarius Gariepinus or Thai Magur have been found in the fresh water of Ganga in Allahabad and its surrounding districts. Idol immersion in Ganga
The annual ritual of immersing idols of goddess Durga and other Hindu deities in the Ganga river has threaten the survival of the endangered river dolphin and other aquatic creatures but also increases pollution in the already polluted river. Thousands of idols were immersed in the Ganga in Kolkata, Patna and other cites situated on the banks of river on Octber 9 and 10, 2008 to mark the end of the Durga Puja festival. Environmentalists have been expressing concern over the immersion of idols made up of metals and toxic materials in the river, polluting it year after year. This time in Kolkata, it is not only the NGOs but also the KMC authorities have ensured a cleaner Ganga.
Thousands of idols were immersed in the Ganga in Kolkata, Patna and other cites situated on the banks of river Ganga every year.
Ganga delta and Ganga in sea The delta of the Ganga, or rather, that of the Hooghly and the Padma, is a vast ragged swamp forest (42,000 sq km) called the Sundarbans the world’s largest delta , home of the Royal Bengal Tiger. The river courses in the delta are broad and active, carrying a vast amount of water. On the seaward side of the delta are swamplands and tidal forests called Sunderbans which are protected conservation areas in both Indian and Bangladeshi law. The peat found in the delta is used for fertilizer and fuel. The water supply to the river depends on the rains brought by the monsoon winds from July to October and the melting snow from the Himalayas during the period from April to June. The delta also experiences strong cyclonic storms before and after the monsoon season which can be devastating. The delta used to be densely forested and inhabited by many wild animals. Today, however, it has become intensely cultivated to meet the needs of the growing population and many of the wild animals have disappeared. The Royal Bengal Tiger still lives in the Sunderbans and kills about 30 villagers every year. There remains high fish populations in the rivers which provides an important part of the inhabitants' diet. Bird life in the Ganges basin is also prolific
Ganga in Kolkata The main branch of the Ganges, the Padma, passes through the Farraka Barrage, a gigantic barrier designed to divert the Ganges waters into the Indian Hooghly branch, and away from the Padma. Completed by the Indian government in the early 1970s, it was intended to help flush out the increasing silt deposits in the Hooghly, to improve navigation, and to provide Kolkata with irrigation and drinking water. About 150 large industrial plants are lined up on the banks of the Hooghly at Kolkata. Together, these plants contribute 30 percent of the total industrial effluent reaching the mouths of the Ganges. Of this, half comes from pulp and paper industries, which discharge a dark brown, oxygen-craving slurry of bark and wood fiber, mercury and other heavy metals which accumulate in fish tissues, and chemical toxins like bleaches and dyes, which produce dioxin and other persistent compounds. CNN-IBN-Outlook State of the Environment Poll has found that 77 per cent people have voted cleaning of rivers by government as the top priority. The findings are especially significant in Kolkata as its main river Hooghly is congested with solid waste and effluents. It is said that the character of a city is best judged by how well it maintains its sea or river front. Kosi River - The Sorrow of Bihar The River Kosi ( कोसी नदी) also called the sorrow of Bihar is one of the largest tributaries of river Ganga. After flowing 58 km in Nepal, it enters the north Bihar plains near Bhimnagar and after another 260 km , flows into the Ganges near Kursela. The river travels a distance of 729 km from its source to the confluence with the Ganga. Due the current floods in Kosi river, the situation in Bihar is the worst witnessed for hundreds of years.
Kolkata as its main river Hooghly is congested with solid waste and effluents. It is said that the character of a city is best judged by how well it maintains its sea or river front. Due the current floods in Kosi river, the situation in Bihar is the worst witnessed for hundreds of years. The floods caused by the breach in the eastern afflux embankment at upstream Kuaha village in Nepal on August 18, 2008 is the worst in the region.
Now Ganga threatened by Expressway Lucknow, January 14, 2008: The UP state government will select a developer for the ambitious Rs 30,000- crore Ganga Expressway project within a couple of days after a committee submits a report to the state Cabinet. Financial bids from five companies for developing the 1,047-km project, linking Noida and Ballia, have been referred to an empowered committee headed by the chief secretary, state Industrial Development Commissioner. The expressway promises to reduce travel time from Ballia to Noida to about 10 hours. Ganga Expressway is anti-Hindu, says BJP and it will hurt Hindu sentiments by compounding pollution in the Ganga. “Ganga is the most sacred river to every Hindu. But the project that entails development of industrial pockets edging the 1,047-km Greater Noida to Ballia expressway will aggravate the pollution in the river. We will fight out the Expressway both on streets as well as in state legislature,” state BJP president Ramapati Ram Tripathi told mediapersons. “Till now, industrial units and leather tanneries in Kanpur were dumping pollutants into the river, but industrial pockets along the expressway will result in more industrial effluents flowing freely into the Ganga,” he added. The state party president further said, “We will not let the project take off as it will not only pollute the sacred river, but also result in widespread displacement of rural population as well as destruction of agriculture by converting farmers into landless labourers. Other opposition parties including the Congress and the Samajwadi Party, are also planning to protest against the expressway. The CPI leaders said that thousands of acres of fertile land in UP was being acquired for the Ganga Expressway project that was bound to render thousands of farmers homeless and jobless.
Ganga threatened by climate change The Ganga is also one of the rivers most threatened by climate change. According to a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (The UN Climate Change Conference in Bali) looking at the threat from climate change to human development and the environment, “only the polar icecaps hold more fresh water than the Himalayan glaciers”: “If the current trends of climate change continue, by 2030 the size of the glaciers could be reduced by as much as 80 per cent,” warns the report, titled “Up in Smoke -- Asia and the Pacific”, released here in November 2007. Some of India’s most important rivers are fed by the Himalayan glaciers. But rising temperatures means that many of the Himalayan glaciers are melting fast due to Global Warming and could diminish significantly over the coming decades with catastrophic results. In the long run, the water flow in the Ganges could drop by two-thirds, affecting more than 400 million people who depend on it for drinking water. The report warns that in the short term the rapid melting of ice high up in the Himalayas might cause river swelling and floods. The formation of glacial lakes of melt-water creates the threat of outburst floods leading to devastation in lowland valleys. Ganga a national heritage On September 22, 2008 Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has assured giving river Ganga a national heritage status, a statement by the Hardwar-based Ganga Raksha Manch said. The prime minister pledged to revive the glory of the river and look into the issue of pollution in the river along its stretch from upper reaches in Hardwar to Ganga Sagar in the Bay of Bengal. More than 300 people held a rally on September 18 organised by the Ganga Raksha Manch, whose convenor is Swami Ramdev to demand that the river be declared a national heritage. The rallysist submitted a letter to President Pratibha Patil with a list of demands. The first PM of India Pandit Jawaharla Nehru said: "The Ganga especially is the river of India's age-long culture and civiastion, ever changing., ever flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga." Ganga is both goddess and river. The name of Ganga appears twice in the Rig Veda, references in Puranas, Valmiki Ramayana, Devi Bhagavatam, Mahabharata and Hindu religious Granthas as mother Ganga. . In other parts of the world great rivers have been referred to as mothers. Volga is Mat Rodanya that is Mother of land. Ireland's river Boyne is worshiped as a goddess, The Thai river is Mae-nau taht is Water Mother. In ancient Egypt the Nile was considered as the tears of Goddess Isis.
Zooplanktons affecting food chain in Ganga M Omair from the University of Michigan in the US has collected zooplankton samples from Haridwar, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Kolkata. He found that many of the zooplanktons that are eaten by the small fish have tumours. The small fish are in turn eaten by the bigger fish and so on, so the ill zooplanktons are getting into the entire food chain, including humans who eat fish from the river. "It is a bad sign for the environmental health of the Ganga," Omair said at a seminar held here on Saturday. "If the zooplanktons are gone, nothing will be left in the river." Omair said all the zooplanktons samples collected at various points along the Ganga were analysed in a lab in the US. The Central Pollution Control Board has declared the Ganga water unfit for drinking along its entire stretch on the Indian plains downstream from Haridwar. At many places, the water has been declared unfit for bathing as well, though bathing in Ganga is considered a holy act by Hindus.
The ill zooplanktons are getting into the entire food chain, including humans who eat fish from the river.
Save Ganga campaign NEW DELHI, August 18, 2008: A group of 250 spiritual heads representing most of the religious sects and Hindu organisations across India on Sunday launched the Save the Ganga campaign in the capital. The campaign, Awiral Ganga, Nirmal Ganga: From Gangotri to Ganga Sagar, aims to clean up the river right from its source in the Himalayas to where it drains into the Bay of Bengal at Ganga Sagar in West Bengal by reducing pollution and demanding national heritage status for the river. Lucknow, September 19, 2008: Yoga guru Ramdev has brought together Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) activists and Muslim clerics for a campaign to save the Ganga river from pollution. The “Save Ganga” campaign was launched Thursday by Ramdev at a meeting organised under the banner of the Ganga Raksha Manch in Kanpur. At the event, Islamic cleric Qazi Qamar Shahjahanpuri and scholar Nawab Mir Jafar Abdullah shared the dais with VHP leaders Swami Chinmayanand and Sadhvi Rithambara. “We wish to urge the prime minister to declare Ganga a national heritage and to make pollution of the holy river a cognisable offence,” Ramdev said. Abdullah compared the holiness of the Ganga water with “Ab-e-zam-zam” - the holy Mecca water, while the Qazi recited excerpts from the Quran to highlight the importance of pure water of which he termed Ganga as the biggest source in the country. A delegation of Hindu and Muslim leaders, headed by Ramdev, will meet Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in New Delhi Saturday. They also want his help to spike the Uttar Pradesh government’s ambitious plan to build a 1,000 km Ganga Expressway connecting the state’s eastern tip to the national capital. “A delegation of holy men, clerics and scholars led by Baba Ramdev will meet Manmohan Singh, whose help has been sought to give concrete strength to our mission to clean the Ganga,” one of Ramdev’s aides told IANS over telephone from Kanpur. “The much publicised Ganga Expressway would not only affect the sanctity of the river but also lead to the displacement of at least 6,000 families,” Chinmayanand said at the launch of the campign. According to official figures, the river receives about 5,044 million litres a day (MLD) of sewage. Only about 1,095 MLD passes through sewage treatment plants (STPs) at different places, with the result that the bulk of the pollutants remain untreated. New Delhi, June 29, 2008 (IANS): The river Ganga, has found a new messiah to purge it of the accumulated filth and breathe new life into its shrinking course. Yoga guru Ramdev, along with a clutch of spiritual seers across the country, is the latest to join the ranks of the river crusaders who are waging a battle against the industry and development lobbies across the country and reluctant state machineries to save India’s dying rivers
Ganga India's national river The mighty Ganga is not only the river but much more to the millions for whom the Ganga is a symbol of faith, hope, substance and sanity. Therefore the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh declared on November 4, 2008 that henceforth the Ganga would be known as India's 'national river'. The Prime minister has also announced the proposal to set up a separate high powered Ganga River Basin Authority to stop its pollution and degradation. Chaired by the Prime minister, the authority would have as the members the chief ministers of states through which the river flows, besides working closely with ministers of water resources, environment and forests, urban development and others as well as agencies working on river conservation and pollution management.
Source of Ganga River In the Uttarakhand Himalayas where glacial water flowing from a cave at Gaumukh, is the origin of the Bhagirathi river. Gaumukh has been described as a desolate place at an altitude of about 4,000 meters (13,000 feet). Twenty-three kilometers from Gaumukh, the river reaches Gangotri, the first town on its path. Thousands of visitors come to Gangotri each year, from every part of the world. The river which joins the Alaknanda river at Devaprayag, also in the Uttarakhand Himalayas, to form the Ganga. The Ganga then flows through the Himalayan valleys and emerges into the north Indian plain at the town of Haridwar. Recent pictures taken by Google Earth via satellite have confirmed that an eight-km stretch of the Bhagirathi river has dried up. The river is shown snaking through the Himalayan mountains as one long, sandy stretch minus any water. Other rivers emanating from the Gangotri glacier, including the Bhilangana, the Assi Ganga and the Alaknanda, all tributaries of the Ganga river, are also drying up. Since the river Ganga (Bhagirathi) is still emanating from the ice cave (Gaumukh) of Gangotri Glacier, no steps are required to be taken at present for bringing back the flow of river Ganga. As far as the recession of the glacier is concerned it is a part of natural phenomena and cannot be stopped by using short term artificial measures. This information was given by Union Minister for Science & Technology and Earth Sciences, Shri Kapil Sibal, in a written reply to a question by Shri Vijoy Krishna in the Lok Sabha on April 29, 2008.
In the Uttarakhand Himalayas where glacial water flowing from a cave at Gaumukh, is the origin of the Bhagirathi river. Twenty-three km. from Gaumukh, the river reaches Gangotri, the first town on its path.
Ganga River in plains On its 1,560-mi (2,510-km) course in plains, Ganga flows southeast through the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The Ganga passing some of the most populous cities of India, including Kanpur , Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Kolkata. The Yamuna, which originates less than a hundred miles east of the Bhagirathi, flows parallel to the Ganga and a little to the south for most of its course before merging with the Ganga at the holy city of Allahabad, also known as Triveni Sangam. New Delhi, capital of India, and Agra, site of the Taj Mahal, are two of the major cities on the Yamuna river. The largest tributary to the Ganga is the Ghaghara, which meets it before Patna, in Bihar, bearing much of the Himalayan glacier melt from Northern Nepal. The Gandak, which comes from near Katmandu, is another big Himalayan tributary. Other important rivers that merge with the Ganga are the Son, which originates in the hills of Madhya Pradesh, the Gomti which flows past Lucknow, and then meets with the river Chambal. On its way it passes the towns of Mirzapur, Varanasi, Patna and Bhagalpur. At Bhagalpur, the river meanders past the Rajmahal Hills, and beings to change course southwards. At Pakaur, the river begins its first attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the River Bhagirathi, which goes on to form the River Hooghly. Close to the border with Bangladesh, the Farakka Barrage, built in 1974 controls the flow of the Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linking the Hooghly to keep it relatively silt free. After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges is known as Padma River till it is joined by the Jamuna River the largest distributaries of the Brahmaputra. Further downstream, the Ganges is fed by the Meghna River, the second largest distributaries of the Brahmaputra and takes on its name. Fanning out into the 350 km (220 mi) wide Ganges Delta, it empties out into the Bay of Bengal. The delta of the Ganga, or rather, that of the Hooghly and the Padma, is a vast ragged swamp forest (42,000 sq km) called the Sunderbans.
Ganga river in plains Ganga river in plains
Pollution in Ganga River Today, over 29 cities, 70 towns, and thousands of villages extend along the Ganges' banks. Nearly all of their sewage - over 1.3 billion liters per day - goes directly into the river, along with thousands of animal carcasses, mainly cattle. Another 260 million liters of industrial waste are added to this by hundreds of factories along the river's banks. Municipal sewage constitutes 80 per cent by volume of the total waste dumped into the Ganges, and industries contribute about 15 percent. The majority of the Ganges pollution is organic waste, sewage, trash, food, and human and animal remains. Over the past century, city populations along the Ganges have grown at a tremendous rate, while waste-control infrastructure has remained relatively unchanged. Recent water samples collected in Varanasi revealed fecal-coliform counts of about 50,000 bacteria per 100 milliliters of water, 10,000% higher than the government standard for safe river bathing. The result of this pollution is an array of water-borne diseases including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid and amoebic dysentery. An estimated 80% of all health problems and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to water-borne diseases. The sacred practice of depositing human remains in the Ganges also poses health threats because of the unsustainable rate at which partially cremated cadavers are dumped. In Varanasi, some 40,000 cremations are performed each year, most on wood pyres that do not completely consume the body. Along with the remains of these traditional funerals, there are thousands more who cannot afford cremation and whose bodies are simply thrown into the Ganges. In addition, the carcasses of thousands of dead cattle, which are sacred to Hindus, go into the river each year. An inadequate cremation procedures contributes to a large number of partially burnt or unburnt corpses floating down the Ganga. The industrial pollutants also a major source of contamination in the Ganges. A total of 146 industries are reported to be located along the river Ganga between Rishikesh and Prayagraj. 144 of these are in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) and 2 in Uttrakhand. The major polluting industries on the Ganga are the leather industries, especially near Kanpur, which use large amounts of Chromium and other toxic chemical waste, and much of it finds its way into the meager flow of the Ganga. From the plains to the sea, pharmaceutical companies, electronics plants, textile and paper industries, tanneries, fertilizer manufacturers and oil refineries discharge effluent into the river. This hazardous waste includes hydrochloric acid, mercury and other heavy metals, bleaches and dyes, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls highly toxic compounds that accumulate in animal and human tissue. However, industry is not the only source of pollution. Sheer volume of waste - estimated at nearly 1 billion litres per day - of mostly untreated raw sewage - is a significant factor. Runoff from farms in the Ganges basin adds chemical fertilizers and pesticides such as DDT, which is banned in the United States because of its toxic and carcinogenic effects on humans and wildlife. Damming the river or diverting its water, mainly for irrigation purposes, also adds to the pollution crisis.
Ganga action plan The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was initiated by the late Prime Minster Indira Gandhi, who called for a comprehensive survey of the situation in 1979. In 1985, the government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan, which was devised to clean up the river in selected areas by installing sewage treatment plants and threatening fines and litigation against industries that pollute. The 2006 official audit of the Ganga Action Plan has revealed that it has met only 39 per cent of its sewage treatment target. Moreover, the plan is behind schedule by over 13 years. According to the legal counsel, Central Pollution Control Board, Mr Vijay Panjawani, even after spending Rs 24,000 crore, the Ganga remains as dirty as ever. A total of Rs.740.11 crore has been released to different States so far for implementation of schemes for the river Ganga under Ganga Action Plan (GAP). The GAP Phase – I, the first attempt of the Government of India to undertake pollution abatement works in the river Ganga, was launched in the year 1985 with the objective of treating 882 million litres per day (mld) of sewage and improving its water quality to bathing class standards. This Phase was declared completed in March, 2000 with the creation of sewage treatment apacity of 865 mld. Since GAP Phase – I did not cover the pollution load of Ganga fully, GAP Phase – II which includes plans for its major tributaries namely, Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda, besides Ganga, was approved in stages from 1993 onwards. The above two phases of Ganga Action Plan have continued since their inception with GAP-I having been completed in 2000 and GAP-II is presently under implementation. A total of 146 industries are reported to be located along the river Ganga between Rishikesh and Prayagraj. 144 of these are in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) and 2 in Uttrakhand. Of the grossly polluting industries in U.P., 82 industries have installed Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and are reported to be complying with the standards, 27 industries, though have installed ETPs are not reported to be complying with the prescribed standards and 35 industries are reported to have been closed. The Central Pollution Control Board has issued directions to the State Pollution Control Boards under Section 18 1(b) of Water Act, 1974 for taking appropriate legal action against the defaulting industries. In the State of Uttrakhand, of the 2 Grossly Polluting Industries, one is reported to have installed the ETP and the other is reported to have been closed. As regards the number of drains falling into the river in the towns covered under the Ganga Action Plan and number of identified Gross Polluting Industries which discharge their effluent in the river between Rishikesh and Prayagraj, the same is given in the Annexure. GAP Phase-I was declared closed in March, 2000. Since GAP Phase-I did not cover the pollution load of Ganga fully, GAP Phase II which included Plans for Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda besides Ganga was approved in various stages from 1993 onwards. The present sanctioned cost of works for Ganga river (main stem) under GAP Phase-II is Rs.564 crore against which an amount of Rs.373.58 crore has been released to the State Implementing Agencies. Out of a total of 311 schemes sanctioned, 185 schemes have been completed so far and the balance schemes are in different stages of implementation. A citizen-based Sankat Mochan Foundation, started in Varanasi in 1982, has made great strides toward a lasting clean-up of the Ganges. With a dual identity as Hindu priest and civil engineer, the organization's founder, Veer Bhadra Mishra, has approached the problem from both a scientific and a spiritual perspective. In collaboration with engineers at the University of California, Berkeley, Mishra has proposed an alternative sewage-treatment plan for Varanasi that is compatible with the climate and conditions of India. The advanced integrated wastewater oxidation pond system would store sewage in a series of ponds and use bacteria and algae to break down waste and purify the water. On June 23, 2008 West Bengal has been allocated Rs 249.68 crore under the second phase of Ganga Action Plan, (GAP-II) to cover 196 schemes in 31 towns of the state as part of the ongoing efforts to clean up the River Ganga. The schemes devised by GAP-II, which now falls under the National River Conservation Development (NRCD), would include interception and diversion of raw sewage, construction of sewage treatment plants, crematoria, river front development, afforestation and public participation. The GAP was a programme launched by the Centre in April 1985 in order to reduce the pollution load on the river Ganga. National Ganga River Basin Authority On November 4, 2008 Government of India declared Ganga as a 'national river' and also to set up a high powered Ganga River Basin Authority to protect the ancient river from pollution and other degradation. On February 20, 2009 the Minister of State for Environment Namo Narain Meena said the Authority would be responsible for addressing the problem of pollution in the river in a holistic and comprehensive manner. " This will include water quality, minimum ecological flows, sustainable access and other issues relevant to river ecology and management."
History The Ganga is mentioned in the Rig-Veda, the earliest of the Hindu scriptures. The Ganga is mentioned in the nadistuti (Rig Veda 10.75), which lists the rivers from east to west. In RV 6.45.31, the word Ganga is also mentioned, but it is not clear if the reference is to the river.RV 3.58.6 says that "your ancient home, your auspicious friendship, O Heroes, your wealth is on the banks of the Jahnavi (JahnAvyAm)". This verse could possibly refer to the Ganga. In RV 1.116.18-19, the Jahnavi and the Gangetic dolphin occur in two adjacent verses. During the early Indo-Aryan Ages, the Indus and the Saraswati were the major rivers, not the Ganga. But the later three Vedas seem to give much more importance to the Ganga, as shown by its numerous references. According to the Hindu Purans, Goddess Ganga used to exist only in Heaven. Then prince Bhagirath worshipped Ganga to descend on earth. This is why Ganga is also known as Bhagirathi. In the Mahabharath this story is also mentioned. In fact, Ganga is a major character in the Mahabharath, where she's the mother of Bhisma. Another version of the myth tells us that Ganga descended to earth to purify the souls of the 60,000 sons of an ancient ruler, King Sagara, who had been burnt to ashes by an enraged ascetic.
Ganga in Hindu religion According to Hindus the river Ganga is sacred. It is worshipped by Hindus and personified as a goddess, who holds an important place in the Hindu religion. Hindu belief holds that bathing in the river on certain occasions causes the forgiveness of sins and helps attain salvation. Many people believe that this will come from bathing in Ganga at any time. People travel from distant places to immerse the ashes of their kin in the waters of the Ganga; this immersion also is believed to send the ashes to heaven. Several places sacred to Hindus lie along the banks of the river Ganga, including Haridwar and Kashi. People carry sacred water from the Ganges that is sealed in copper pots after making the pilgrimage to Kashi. It is believed that drinking water from the Ganga with one's last breath will take the soul to heaven.Hindus also believe life is incomplete without bathing in the Ganga at least once in their lifetime. In most Hindu families, a vial of water from the Ganga is kept in every house. This is done because it is auspicious to have water of the Holy Ganga in the house, and also if someone is dying, that person will be able to drink its water. Many Hindus believe that the water from the Ganga can cleanse a person's soul of all past sins, and that it can also cure the ill. The ancient scriptures mention that the water of Ganges carries the blessings of the Lord's feet. Hence mother Ganges is also known as Visnupadi (Emanating from the Lotus feet of Supreme Lord Sri Visnu). Some of the most important Hindu festivals and religious congregations are celebrated on the banks of the river Ganga such as the Kumbh Mela or the Kumbh Fair and the Chhat Puja. Around 70 million Hindus from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela at the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad). The most important city sacred to Hinduism on the banks of the River Ganga is Varanasi or Banaras. It has hundreds of temples along the banks of the Ganga which often get flooded during the rains. This city, especially along the banks of the Ganga, is an important place of worship for the Hindus as well as a cremation ground.
Lord Shiva (शिव) Goddess Ganga
Tehri dam The most controversial Tehri dam is the main dam of the Tehri Hydro Project on the rivers Bhagirathi (one of the major tributary of the river Ganga) located near Tehri in Uttarakhand. It is a multi purpose river valley project, towering 855 feet (261 m). The main dam at Tehri is the 8th tallest dam in the world. The dam's projected capabilities include a power generation capacity of 2400 MW, irrigation stabilization to an area of 6,000 km², an additional area of 2,700 km² of irrigation stabilization and a supply of 270 million gallons (1.23 million cubic metres) of drinking water to industrialized cities in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The dam project was approved in 1972 and construction was started in 1978. The dam is operational since July 2006. Until March 2008, a sum of Rs 8,298 crore had been spent on the dam, far outweighing the initial planned costs. Its projected power generating capacity was 2,400 MW. Currently, it is generating only 1,000 MW, less than half its capacity. According to Hindu mythology, river Bhagirathi is the actual Ganga, though the name of Ganga is assumed only after the river Bhagirathi meets river Alaknanda at Devprayag. Cutting off the water supply of Bhagirathi to such low quantity means that after travelling more than 80 km from this point, water of Bhagirathi will be hardly reaching Ganga. It is predicted that after 20 years the mighty Ganga will be reduced to a trickle and cease to exist for the 150 million people in this region. The Tehri dam is located in the Central Himalayan Seismic Gap, a major geologic fault zone. This region was the site of a magnitude 6.8 earthquake in October 1991, epicentred 50 km from the location of the dam. Khumb Mela The Kumbh Mela, the largest religious gathering on earth, is held every 12 years on the banks of the Triveni Sangam - the confluence of the holy rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati. The Mela alternates between Nasik, Allahabad, Ujjain and Haridwar every three years. The one celebrated at the Holy Sangam in Allahabad is the largest and holiest of them. The Mela is attended by millions of devotees, including Sadhus. A holy dip in the sacred waters is believed to cleanse the soul. The Ardh or 'half Kumbh' Mela, is held every six years on the banks of Sangam. Second only to the Kumbh in sanctity, the Ardh Kumbh also attracts devotes in the millions, from all over the world. Magh Mela is an annual event held at the Sangam. In Hindu religion Kumbh is the symbol of spiritual awakening. It is the symbol of the confluence of nature and humanity. Kumbh is the source of all energy. Kumbh makes humankind realize this world and the other, sins and blessings, wisdom and ignorance, darkness and light.
Tehri is the world’s 8th tallest dam. Until March 2008, a sum of Rs 8,298 crore had been spent on the dam, far outweighing the initial planned costs. Its projected power generating capacity was 2,400 MW. Currently, it is generating only 1,000 MW, less than half its capacity. Until March 2008, a sum of Rs 8,298 crore had been spent on the dam. Traditional procession of Akharas, shining swords of naga, sages in Shahi Snan (royal bath) between elephants, horses, musical instruments, horse race attracts lakhs of devotees to visit Kumbh.
Economy The flora and fauna found along Ganga banks are vital to nutrient and water conservation, and control of soil erosion. 451 million people living in its basin are directly and indirectly dependent upon the Ganga. Watered by the monsoons, this silt-enriched land produces a significant portion of the rice, wheat, millet, sugar, and barley needed to feed the world's second most populous nation. The rain feds the land, dilutes the river's muddy stream, flushes out excess sediment and suspended matter, and revitalizes the river where its flow was sluggish. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area. The Ganges can swell a thousand-fold during the monsoons. Haridwar, Allahabad, and Varanasi are the the source of tourism and attract thousands of pilgrims to its waters. Thousands of Hindu pilgrims arrive at these three towns to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation.Ecology The Ganga has been described by the World Wildlife Fund as one of the world’s top ten rivers at risk. It has over 140 fish species, 90 amphibian species, and five areas which support birds found nowhere else in the world. According to studies reported by environmental engineer D.S. Bhargava of the University of Roorkee, the Ganges decomposes organic waste 15 to 25 times faster than other rivers. The Ganges has an extraordinarily high rate of reaeration, the process by which it absorbs atmospheric oxygen. When organic waste is dropped into it, as much as 60 per cent of the BOD is processed within an hour. The water quality samples also suggest that the Ganges retains DO much longer than does water from other rivers. In a recent finding, the scientists have observed that various species of fishes which helped in keeping the river water clean are facing extinction. In its place, numerous marine species are thriving in the river. Marine species like Sea Bass, Rostellascaris, Xenentodon Cancilla, Clarius Gariepinus or Thai Magur have been found in the fresh water of Ganga in Allahabad and its surrounding districts. Idol immersion in Ganga
The annual ritual of immersing idols of goddess Durga and other Hindu deities in the Ganga river has threaten the survival of the endangered river dolphin and other aquatic creatures but also increases pollution in the already polluted river. Thousands of idols were immersed in the Ganga in Kolkata, Patna and other cites situated on the banks of river on Octber 9 and 10, 2008 to mark the end of the Durga Puja festival. Environmentalists have been expressing concern over the immersion of idols made up of metals and toxic materials in the river, polluting it year after year. This time in Kolkata, it is not only the NGOs but also the KMC authorities have ensured a cleaner Ganga.
Thousands of idols were immersed in the Ganga in Kolkata, Patna and other cites situated on the banks of river Ganga every year.
Ganga delta and Ganga in sea The delta of the Ganga, or rather, that of the Hooghly and the Padma, is a vast ragged swamp forest (42,000 sq km) called the Sundarbans the world’s largest delta , home of the Royal Bengal Tiger. The river courses in the delta are broad and active, carrying a vast amount of water. On the seaward side of the delta are swamplands and tidal forests called Sunderbans which are protected conservation areas in both Indian and Bangladeshi law. The peat found in the delta is used for fertilizer and fuel. The water supply to the river depends on the rains brought by the monsoon winds from July to October and the melting snow from the Himalayas during the period from April to June. The delta also experiences strong cyclonic storms before and after the monsoon season which can be devastating. The delta used to be densely forested and inhabited by many wild animals. Today, however, it has become intensely cultivated to meet the needs of the growing population and many of the wild animals have disappeared. The Royal Bengal Tiger still lives in the Sunderbans and kills about 30 villagers every year. There remains high fish populations in the rivers which provides an important part of the inhabitants' diet. Bird life in the Ganges basin is also prolific
Ganga in Kolkata The main branch of the Ganges, the Padma, passes through the Farraka Barrage, a gigantic barrier designed to divert the Ganges waters into the Indian Hooghly branch, and away from the Padma. Completed by the Indian government in the early 1970s, it was intended to help flush out the increasing silt deposits in the Hooghly, to improve navigation, and to provide Kolkata with irrigation and drinking water. About 150 large industrial plants are lined up on the banks of the Hooghly at Kolkata. Together, these plants contribute 30 percent of the total industrial effluent reaching the mouths of the Ganges. Of this, half comes from pulp and paper industries, which discharge a dark brown, oxygen-craving slurry of bark and wood fiber, mercury and other heavy metals which accumulate in fish tissues, and chemical toxins like bleaches and dyes, which produce dioxin and other persistent compounds. CNN-IBN-Outlook State of the Environment Poll has found that 77 per cent people have voted cleaning of rivers by government as the top priority. The findings are especially significant in Kolkata as its main river Hooghly is congested with solid waste and effluents. It is said that the character of a city is best judged by how well it maintains its sea or river front. Kosi River - The Sorrow of Bihar The River Kosi ( कोसी नदी) also called the sorrow of Bihar is one of the largest tributaries of river Ganga. After flowing 58 km in Nepal, it enters the north Bihar plains near Bhimnagar and after another 260 km , flows into the Ganges near Kursela. The river travels a distance of 729 km from its source to the confluence with the Ganga. Due the current floods in Kosi river, the situation in Bihar is the worst witnessed for hundreds of years.
Kolkata as its main river Hooghly is congested with solid waste and effluents. It is said that the character of a city is best judged by how well it maintains its sea or river front. Due the current floods in Kosi river, the situation in Bihar is the worst witnessed for hundreds of years. The floods caused by the breach in the eastern afflux embankment at upstream Kuaha village in Nepal on August 18, 2008 is the worst in the region.
Now Ganga threatened by Expressway Lucknow, January 14, 2008: The UP state government will select a developer for the ambitious Rs 30,000- crore Ganga Expressway project within a couple of days after a committee submits a report to the state Cabinet. Financial bids from five companies for developing the 1,047-km project, linking Noida and Ballia, have been referred to an empowered committee headed by the chief secretary, state Industrial Development Commissioner. The expressway promises to reduce travel time from Ballia to Noida to about 10 hours. Ganga Expressway is anti-Hindu, says BJP and it will hurt Hindu sentiments by compounding pollution in the Ganga. “Ganga is the most sacred river to every Hindu. But the project that entails development of industrial pockets edging the 1,047-km Greater Noida to Ballia expressway will aggravate the pollution in the river. We will fight out the Expressway both on streets as well as in state legislature,” state BJP president Ramapati Ram Tripathi told mediapersons. “Till now, industrial units and leather tanneries in Kanpur were dumping pollutants into the river, but industrial pockets along the expressway will result in more industrial effluents flowing freely into the Ganga,” he added. The state party president further said, “We will not let the project take off as it will not only pollute the sacred river, but also result in widespread displacement of rural population as well as destruction of agriculture by converting farmers into landless labourers. Other opposition parties including the Congress and the Samajwadi Party, are also planning to protest against the expressway. The CPI leaders said that thousands of acres of fertile land in UP was being acquired for the Ganga Expressway project that was bound to render thousands of farmers homeless and jobless.
Ganga threatened by climate change The Ganga is also one of the rivers most threatened by climate change. According to a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (The UN Climate Change Conference in Bali) looking at the threat from climate change to human development and the environment, “only the polar icecaps hold more fresh water than the Himalayan glaciers”: “If the current trends of climate change continue, by 2030 the size of the glaciers could be reduced by as much as 80 per cent,” warns the report, titled “Up in Smoke -- Asia and the Pacific”, released here in November 2007. Some of India’s most important rivers are fed by the Himalayan glaciers. But rising temperatures means that many of the Himalayan glaciers are melting fast due to Global Warming and could diminish significantly over the coming decades with catastrophic results. In the long run, the water flow in the Ganges could drop by two-thirds, affecting more than 400 million people who depend on it for drinking water. The report warns that in the short term the rapid melting of ice high up in the Himalayas might cause river swelling and floods. The formation of glacial lakes of melt-water creates the threat of outburst floods leading to devastation in lowland valleys. Ganga a national heritage On September 22, 2008 Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has assured giving river Ganga a national heritage status, a statement by the Hardwar-based Ganga Raksha Manch said. The prime minister pledged to revive the glory of the river and look into the issue of pollution in the river along its stretch from upper reaches in Hardwar to Ganga Sagar in the Bay of Bengal. More than 300 people held a rally on September 18 organised by the Ganga Raksha Manch, whose convenor is Swami Ramdev to demand that the river be declared a national heritage. The rallysist submitted a letter to President Pratibha Patil with a list of demands. The first PM of India Pandit Jawaharla Nehru said: "The Ganga especially is the river of India's age-long culture and civiastion, ever changing., ever flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga." Ganga is both goddess and river. The name of Ganga appears twice in the Rig Veda, references in Puranas, Valmiki Ramayana, Devi Bhagavatam, Mahabharata and Hindu religious Granthas as mother Ganga. . In other parts of the world great rivers have been referred to as mothers. Volga is Mat Rodanya that is Mother of land. Ireland's river Boyne is worshiped as a goddess, The Thai river is Mae-nau taht is Water Mother. In ancient Egypt the Nile was considered as the tears of Goddess Isis.
Zooplanktons affecting food chain in Ganga M Omair from the University of Michigan in the US has collected zooplankton samples from Haridwar, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Kolkata. He found that many of the zooplanktons that are eaten by the small fish have tumours. The small fish are in turn eaten by the bigger fish and so on, so the ill zooplanktons are getting into the entire food chain, including humans who eat fish from the river. "It is a bad sign for the environmental health of the Ganga," Omair said at a seminar held here on Saturday. "If the zooplanktons are gone, nothing will be left in the river." Omair said all the zooplanktons samples collected at various points along the Ganga were analysed in a lab in the US. The Central Pollution Control Board has declared the Ganga water unfit for drinking along its entire stretch on the Indian plains downstream from Haridwar. At many places, the water has been declared unfit for bathing as well, though bathing in Ganga is considered a holy act by Hindus.
The ill zooplanktons are getting into the entire food chain, including humans who eat fish from the river.
Save Ganga campaign NEW DELHI, August 18, 2008: A group of 250 spiritual heads representing most of the religious sects and Hindu organisations across India on Sunday launched the Save the Ganga campaign in the capital. The campaign, Awiral Ganga, Nirmal Ganga: From Gangotri to Ganga Sagar, aims to clean up the river right from its source in the Himalayas to where it drains into the Bay of Bengal at Ganga Sagar in West Bengal by reducing pollution and demanding national heritage status for the river. Lucknow, September 19, 2008: Yoga guru Ramdev has brought together Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) activists and Muslim clerics for a campaign to save the Ganga river from pollution. The “Save Ganga” campaign was launched Thursday by Ramdev at a meeting organised under the banner of the Ganga Raksha Manch in Kanpur. At the event, Islamic cleric Qazi Qamar Shahjahanpuri and scholar Nawab Mir Jafar Abdullah shared the dais with VHP leaders Swami Chinmayanand and Sadhvi Rithambara. “We wish to urge the prime minister to declare Ganga a national heritage and to make pollution of the holy river a cognisable offence,” Ramdev said. Abdullah compared the holiness of the Ganga water with “Ab-e-zam-zam” - the holy Mecca water, while the Qazi recited excerpts from the Quran to highlight the importance of pure water of which he termed Ganga as the biggest source in the country. A delegation of Hindu and Muslim leaders, headed by Ramdev, will meet Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in New Delhi Saturday. They also want his help to spike the Uttar Pradesh government’s ambitious plan to build a 1,000 km Ganga Expressway connecting the state’s eastern tip to the national capital. “A delegation of holy men, clerics and scholars led by Baba Ramdev will meet Manmohan Singh, whose help has been sought to give concrete strength to our mission to clean the Ganga,” one of Ramdev’s aides told IANS over telephone from Kanpur. “The much publicised Ganga Expressway would not only affect the sanctity of the river but also lead to the displacement of at least 6,000 families,” Chinmayanand said at the launch of the campign. According to official figures, the river receives about 5,044 million litres a day (MLD) of sewage. Only about 1,095 MLD passes through sewage treatment plants (STPs) at different places, with the result that the bulk of the pollutants remain untreated. New Delhi, June 29, 2008 (IANS): The river Ganga, has found a new messiah to purge it of the accumulated filth and breathe new life into its shrinking course. Yoga guru Ramdev, along with a clutch of spiritual seers across the country, is the latest to join the ranks of the river crusaders who are waging a battle against the industry and development lobbies across the country and reluctant state machineries to save India’s dying rivers
India's ambitious solar power plans
India's Rs 4,800-crore (Rs 48 billion) solar power industry, which exports around 60 to 70 per cent of its wares to Europe, North America and China, seems to have taken a cue from the IT sector and is aiming for a greater foothold in the Indian market. India, where most regions enjoy nearly 300 sunny days a year, is an ideal market for solar power companies. However, the high cost of light-to-electricity conversion - at Rs 12 to Rs 20 per kWh (kilowatt-hour) - has acted as a deterrent so far, according to Frost & Sullivan Deputy Director (Energy and Power Systems) Amol Kotwal. Currently, India has around 60 companies assembling and supplying solar photovoltaic systems, nine companies manufacturing solar cells and 19 companies manufacturing photovoltaic modules or panels, according to an Indian Semiconductor Association study. However, spurred by factors like an increased demand for clean power, an energy-starved industry and the falling cost of solar-power generation, companies in this space are coming up with a noteworthy number of domestic projects. It has also helped that the government is lending support to such projects through state electricity boards with subsidies.Source: Rediff.com Tata BP Solar ties up with ESB for heating system DUBAI, May 3, 2009:: Tata BP Solar India (TBS) has tied up with Dubai-based Eurostar Solar Energy (ESE) to meet the rising demand for solar thermal water heating systems in the region. TBS is a joint venture between Tata Power Company, a pioneer in the power sector and BP Solar one of the largest Solar Companies in the world. ESE, the newly launched group company of EUROSTAR Group, is an active proponent for renewable energy in the region offering expertise in the design, supply, installation, commissioning and after sales service of solar water heating systems (provided by TBS) and PV systems. Solar plane to take off next April JAIPUR, November 17, 2008: 'Solarimplse,' a solar plane, dubbed a revolutionary project in the field of aviation, will have its first test flight April next year in Switzerland, an officer associated with the project said. Besides, the microlight-like plane is scheduled to take off for a round-the-world flight in May 2011, project communication head Phil Mundwiller said. The pollution-free plane would fly with zero fuel on the strength of solar power both day and night, whose prototype was displayed here as part of the 60th ceremony of India-Switzerland Friendship Treaty. Phil said two aircraft with the investment of $100m are being designed by a team of 60 engineers. Its commercial production is expected to start by 2011. -PTI Remote Rajasthan village gets lit by solar power NEW DELHI, August 12, 2008: Around 500 residents of a Rajasthan village now have lighting from solar power, thanks to an initiative by international renewable energy major Conergy, in partnership with the Masonic rust here. All 98 homes, two temples and a school in Dewri Gowda village in Rajasthan's Alwar district now have solar powered lighting, a total of 940 watts, a Conergy spokesperson said here on Tuesday. The project is a part of Conergy Renewable Energy Village initiative, supported by India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Funding for the project was raised through a charity golf tournament last November. Conergy India managing director Rajesh Bhat said: "Through our subsidiary SunTechnics, we have already installed several hundred renewable energy systems for environmentally-friendly solar power and thus improved the living standards of more than 100,000 people in 250 Indian villages. "Till now, more than 13 per cent of the 600,000 remote villages in India lack electricity. Like Dewri Gowda, most are located in remote territory, which proves expensive and technologically-challenging for power supplied through a public grid. Off-grid renewable energy products such as solar-powered home and street lighting systems thus serve as affordable and efficient alternatives, while also being environment- friendly." Venkittu Sundaram, chairman of the Lodge Elysium Masonic Trust and managing director of EPURON India, said: "India's potential for renewable energy projects far exceeds the current installed capacity. Of the current 144,913 megawatts of energy produced in India, only 8.4 per cent comes from renewable sources." Source: The Times of India India's first solar powered housing project Kolkata, July 14, 2008: India's first solar powered housing project are fitted with all the modern amenities. Installed on its roof are solar panels and solar water heaters, which will offer inmates electricity as well as provide them with warm water for a relaxing bath at the end of a tiring day. The lily pool in front of each house looks pretty but serves a more serious purpose. The breeze flowing over it cools the house on entering it through a natural draft circulation process called the chimney effect. India's first solar housing project— Rabi Rashmi Abasan—at Rajarhat on the outskirts of Kolkata has to offer. This housing project has a group of 25 houses. Priced at Rs 45 lakh per house, this housing project has already found its share of takers among the upper end of the social spectrum. These 25 houses will ensure at least 60% of energy savings without compromising on comfort. Source: DNA
India's Temples moving quietly towards renewable energy.July 07, 2008: The Tirumala temple, in the south Indian city of Tirupathi, is one of Hinduism's holiest shrines. Over 5,000 pilgrims a day visit this city of seven hills, filling Tirumala's coffers with donations and making it India's richest temple. But since 2002, Tirumala has also been generating revenue from a less likely source: carbon credits. For decades, the temple's community kitchen has fed nearly 15,000 people, cooking 30,000 meals a day. Five years ago, Tirumala adopted solar cooking technology, allowing it to dramatically cut down on the amount of diesel fuel it uses. The temple now sells the emission reduction credits it earns to a Swiss green- technology investor, Good Energies Inc. Like Tirumala, dozens of holy places across India are moving quietly towards green energy. Muni Seva Ashram, in Gujarat, which combines spiritual practice with social activism, is working to make its premises entirely green by using solar, wind and biogas energy. A residential school for 400 students is already running exclusively on green energy. Starting this year, the ashram will also sell three million carbon credits. A similar movement is afoot at the revered Sai Baba Temple in Shirdi, Maharashtra. - AFP
The Tirumala temple, in the south Indian city of Tirupathi, is one of Hinduism's holiest shrines.
McCain proposes $300million prize to develop h--tech auto battery Washington, June 24, 2008: Senetor John McCain hopes to solve the country's energy crisis with cold hard cash. He thinks the government should offer a $300 million prize to the people who can develop an automobile battery that leapfrogs existing technology. India for battery-operated vehicles NEW DELHI, June 18, 2008: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Secretary V. Subramanian stressed the need for rigorous marketing and opening of dealers network in major cities for battery-operated vehicles by the manufacturers. In a meeting with the major battery-operated vehicle manufacturers in the Ministry, Subramanian said that the Government was keen to work out a conducive policy for large use of battery-operated vehicles in the country. Several battery-operated models of two-wheelers, three-wheelers and four-wheelers are manufactured by a number of industries. However the number of such vehicles is quite small in comparison to conventional fuel vehicles. During the discussion, it was felt that while the running cost of battery-operated vehicles is cheaper than the petrol/diesel run vehicles, the replacement of batteries of battery-operated vehicles is quite costly. Leasing of batteries and central charging facility of batteries of battery-operated vehicles were also considered as a step-forward for promotion of battery-operated vehicles. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy through its research and development and demonstration programmes has made successful efforts for using bio fuels in automobiles and stationary engines and development and production of battery- operated vehicles during past 20 years or so. Battery-operated vehicle manufacturers have assured all efforts by them for expanding their marketing network and creating awareness about these vehicles. The leading battery-operated vehicle manufacturers Mahendra, Bajaj Auto Limited, Honda Motors, Reva Electrics, Electrothurps, Eco Vehicles, Yo-Bikes and E-Bikes participated in the meeting. Representatives from Society for Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) and Tata Motors also attended the meeting. Source: The Economic Times India can lead world in renewable energy: Al GoreNEW DELHI, March 15, 2008 (AFP): India, as an advanced developing nation, can help lead the world in renewable energy technologies to solve "the climate change crisis," former US vice president and Nobel Peace winner Al Gore said. "India has proven its capability in sectors like information technology and can be a leader in the world in developing new renewable technologies to combat climate change," Gore told reporters here in New Delhi on the weekend. Gore was speaking at the launch on Saturday of the India wing of "The Climate Project", a US-based non-profit group that supports the former vice president's efforts to tackle climate change globally. The jatropha plant an alternative to diesel fuel in India Goa, February 23, 2008: The cultivation of the jatropha plant in the Western states of Goa and Maharashtra and dhaincha in Bihar is increasingly being promoted as promising an alternative to diesel fuel in India. In Goa, bio-diesel derived from jatropha curcas, locally known as ‘erond’, is becoming more widespread. Fr Inacio Almeida, of Pilar, Goa, runs the nature farm of the society of Pilar (or society of the missionaries of St Francis Xavier) and is a leading populariser of jatropha as a feedstock for the production of bio diesel. jatropha until recently was routinely used as stumps for damming paddy fields and orchards. “One litre of fuel can be extracted from three kilograms of jatropha seeds,” says Fr Almeida. Among the developments he envisions is for “each village in Goa to have its own jatropha plantation and extraction machinery.”
XL Telecom & Energy plans to enter into power generation MUMBAI, December 26, 2007: XL Telecom & Energy plans to enter the power generation segment with initial investments in Spain, the current global destination for Grid Connected Solar Energy. Saptashva Solar, a subsidiary of the company, will establish a series of "Solar Farms" for power generation in Spain with a 28 MW capacity target for the first year. The medium term target is to install close to 200 MW of these farms in Spain and surrounding Portugal alone. Other countries are also being explored for establishing such farms to avail of the benefits offered and to go up the solar "value chain". The project is expected to have 25 year PPA from the local utility company. Saptashva will generate on first full year of operations with this capacity about Euro 17.740 million, or Rs 100 crore, with 20 per cent margins for next 25 years. The first solar farm of 2.3 mw will be implemented before March 2008 and the balance would get installed by December 2008. The project is expected to have debt equity ratio of 1:4 and will be funded by local banks. As the investments are being made in the subsidiary of XL Telecom & Energy, the company do not envisaging any dilution in the parent company.
India's Temples moving quietly towards renewable energy.July 07, 2008: The Tirumala temple, in the south Indian city of Tirupathi, is one of Hinduism's holiest shrines. Over 5,000 pilgrims a day visit this city of seven hills, filling Tirumala's coffers with donations and making it India's richest temple. But since 2002, Tirumala has also been generating revenue from a less likely source: carbon credits. For decades, the temple's community kitchen has fed nearly 15,000 people, cooking 30,000 meals a day. Five years ago, Tirumala adopted solar cooking technology, allowing it to dramatically cut down on the amount of diesel fuel it uses. The temple now sells the emission reduction credits it earns to a Swiss green- technology investor, Good Energies Inc. Like Tirumala, dozens of holy places across India are moving quietly towards green energy. Muni Seva Ashram, in Gujarat, which combines spiritual practice with social activism, is working to make its premises entirely green by using solar, wind and biogas energy. A residential school for 400 students is already running exclusively on green energy. Starting this year, the ashram will also sell three million carbon credits. A similar movement is afoot at the revered Sai Baba Temple in Shirdi, Maharashtra. - AFP
The Tirumala temple, in the south Indian city of Tirupathi, is one of Hinduism's holiest shrines.
McCain proposes $300million prize to develop h--tech auto battery Washington, June 24, 2008: Senetor John McCain hopes to solve the country's energy crisis with cold hard cash. He thinks the government should offer a $300 million prize to the people who can develop an automobile battery that leapfrogs existing technology. India for battery-operated vehicles NEW DELHI, June 18, 2008: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Secretary V. Subramanian stressed the need for rigorous marketing and opening of dealers network in major cities for battery-operated vehicles by the manufacturers. In a meeting with the major battery-operated vehicle manufacturers in the Ministry, Subramanian said that the Government was keen to work out a conducive policy for large use of battery-operated vehicles in the country. Several battery-operated models of two-wheelers, three-wheelers and four-wheelers are manufactured by a number of industries. However the number of such vehicles is quite small in comparison to conventional fuel vehicles. During the discussion, it was felt that while the running cost of battery-operated vehicles is cheaper than the petrol/diesel run vehicles, the replacement of batteries of battery-operated vehicles is quite costly. Leasing of batteries and central charging facility of batteries of battery-operated vehicles were also considered as a step-forward for promotion of battery-operated vehicles. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy through its research and development and demonstration programmes has made successful efforts for using bio fuels in automobiles and stationary engines and development and production of battery- operated vehicles during past 20 years or so. Battery-operated vehicle manufacturers have assured all efforts by them for expanding their marketing network and creating awareness about these vehicles. The leading battery-operated vehicle manufacturers Mahendra, Bajaj Auto Limited, Honda Motors, Reva Electrics, Electrothurps, Eco Vehicles, Yo-Bikes and E-Bikes participated in the meeting. Representatives from Society for Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) and Tata Motors also attended the meeting. Source: The Economic Times India can lead world in renewable energy: Al GoreNEW DELHI, March 15, 2008 (AFP): India, as an advanced developing nation, can help lead the world in renewable energy technologies to solve "the climate change crisis," former US vice president and Nobel Peace winner Al Gore said. "India has proven its capability in sectors like information technology and can be a leader in the world in developing new renewable technologies to combat climate change," Gore told reporters here in New Delhi on the weekend. Gore was speaking at the launch on Saturday of the India wing of "The Climate Project", a US-based non-profit group that supports the former vice president's efforts to tackle climate change globally. The jatropha plant an alternative to diesel fuel in India Goa, February 23, 2008: The cultivation of the jatropha plant in the Western states of Goa and Maharashtra and dhaincha in Bihar is increasingly being promoted as promising an alternative to diesel fuel in India. In Goa, bio-diesel derived from jatropha curcas, locally known as ‘erond’, is becoming more widespread. Fr Inacio Almeida, of Pilar, Goa, runs the nature farm of the society of Pilar (or society of the missionaries of St Francis Xavier) and is a leading populariser of jatropha as a feedstock for the production of bio diesel. jatropha until recently was routinely used as stumps for damming paddy fields and orchards. “One litre of fuel can be extracted from three kilograms of jatropha seeds,” says Fr Almeida. Among the developments he envisions is for “each village in Goa to have its own jatropha plantation and extraction machinery.”
XL Telecom & Energy plans to enter into power generation MUMBAI, December 26, 2007: XL Telecom & Energy plans to enter the power generation segment with initial investments in Spain, the current global destination for Grid Connected Solar Energy. Saptashva Solar, a subsidiary of the company, will establish a series of "Solar Farms" for power generation in Spain with a 28 MW capacity target for the first year. The medium term target is to install close to 200 MW of these farms in Spain and surrounding Portugal alone. Other countries are also being explored for establishing such farms to avail of the benefits offered and to go up the solar "value chain". The project is expected to have 25 year PPA from the local utility company. Saptashva will generate on first full year of operations with this capacity about Euro 17.740 million, or Rs 100 crore, with 20 per cent margins for next 25 years. The first solar farm of 2.3 mw will be implemented before March 2008 and the balance would get installed by December 2008. The project is expected to have debt equity ratio of 1:4 and will be funded by local banks. As the investments are being made in the subsidiary of XL Telecom & Energy, the company do not envisaging any dilution in the parent company.
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)