Kerala State is situated between 8 o 8' and 18 o 48' North latitude and 74 o 4' to 77 o 50' East longitude, along the windward side of the Western Ghats of Indian Peninsula . The State is located in the tropical region of Indian Peninsula and extends to an area of about 38863 km 2 , which accounts for about 1. 2 per cent of the total geographical area of the country. The State is bordered by Tamil Nadu State on its South and part of the East, Karnataka State on the North and part of the East, the Lakshadweep Sea on the West and the Indian Ocean along the South. The State has a total coastline of about 560 km and from sea level it rises to about 2694 m above msl.
Because of the location of the State along the windward side of the Western Ghats , it receives an average yearly rainfall of about 3000 mm, and the precipitations in the South-West and North-East Monsoon period, may go even up to 5000 mm, especially in the higher altitudes of Wayanad and Idukki plateaus. The average temperature of the State at 1ow and medium elevations ranging between 0-700 m is about 23 o C. Between 700 - 1400 m above msl, the temperature fluctuates between 16 and 23 o C and in the high altitude areas along the crests of the Western Ghats , it is about 15 o C during the coldest months. Above 1400 m elevation, the average temperature is even less, ranging from 13.5 to 16 o C, and it is in this zone that the shola forests, with similarities in species representation with the temperate Himalayan forests, are distributed in the State.
Physiographically, the terrain has three natural regions namely, lowlands, midland, highlands. A physiographic classification, identified mainly in terms of broad geomorphic surfaces and altitudinal characteristics, is also used in the parlance of geographers (CESS, 1984). It has five physiographic zones, namely, high ranges with elevation above 600 m, foothill zone between 300 to 600 m, upland regions between 100 - 300 m, midland between 20 - 100 m and coastal areas and low land below an altitude of 20 m.
Kerala has 44 perennial rivers, of which three are East flowing and the remaining 41 are emptied into the Lakshadweep Sea , along the western side of the State . Rivers are generally swift flowing having very steep gradients in their higher reaches. Absence of delta formation is characteristic of Kerala rivers. The general drainage pattern of these rivers is dendritic, although at places trellis, sub-parallel and radial occur. The segments of river courses are nearly straight, indicating structural control, coinciding with the prominent lineament directions (NW-SE and NE-SW). As per national norm (Rao, 1979), there are no major rivers in Kerala. The four medium rivers, namely Chaliyar, Bharathapuzha, Periyar and Pamba have a total drainage area of only 8250 km 2 with length 169 km, 209 km, 244 km and 176 km respectively. The length of rest of the rivers varies from 16 km to 130 km, with an average length of 62 km and total drainage area of 19,485 km 2 . The river flow is modulated by about 30 reservoirs, mostly located in highlands (KSLUB, 2002; CWRDM, 1995). There are two fresh water lakes in the State namely the Pookot and Sasthamkottah. The State is also having a total of 46.13 km 2 of estuaries and backwaters. The important backwaters are Vembanad and Ashtamudi lakes
Ten broad groups of soils based on morphological features and physico-chemical properties have been identified in Kerala (Anon, 1978). They are red soil, laterite soil, coastal alluvial soil, riverine alluvial soil, grayish Onattukara soil, brown hydromorphic soil, hydromorphic saline soil, acid saline soil, black soil and forest soil.
The major forest types represented in the State (Champion and Seth, 1968) include the dry deciduous, moist deciduous, semievergreen, evergreen and shola forests . Within these four major forest types are also several subtypes and derivatives, differing in species composition and vegetation characteristics
Almost 78 per cent of the total land area of the State is under agriculture and dwelling, and the remaining 22 per cent of the land is under forests and forest plantations. Quite obviously, the pristine status of nature is better protected only in a limited area, and that too in the higher altitudes, whereas, most of the remaining area of the State is subjected to degradation and transformations of various types
Thursday, July 2, 2009
Preserve environment: Students
Three hundred students of S.D. Senior Secondary School marched through the city streets here today to mark the World Earth Environment Day - 1999. The celebrations were organised in collaboration with the Children's Alliance for Protection of the Environment (CAPE). They carried placards proclaiming Save the ozone layer, Save humanity.
Union Ministry of Environment and Forests Joint Director K.K. Garg flagged off the march which was led by school principal Vishwa Bandhu and environment teacher Ajay Sharma. Addressing the marchers, Environment Society of India president S.K. Sharma stressed traditional practices in environmental conservation. The school student's have pledged to take care of some 200 saplings planted by CAPE.
In similar celebrations, the Green Environment Club, Chandigarh, organised an awareness programme on the theme Keep our water sources clean at the premises of the Government Central Crafts Institute For Women. Prof S.C. Jain of Panjab University's Department of Chemical Engineering, spoke on the occasion. He stressed the need to preserve and protect water resources and urged people not to dump garbage, filth and human waste in water. UT Technical Education Director S.K.Aggarwal also spoke. S.K. Sharma gave away prizes to the winners in various competitions relating to World Earth Environment Day. A programme of songs and dances was presented.
The National Service Scheme, Punjab University, and the Government College for Girls, Sector 11, also jointly organised celebrations of the ``World Earth Day'' at Janta Colony, Sector 25 this morning. The celebrations were attended by a number of social workers, community leaders, teachers and NSS volunteers. Dr C.L. Narang, Programme Coordinator, PU, stated that due to ecological imbalances there is a threat of natural calamities in the near future.
Vijay Laxmi, principal of the GCG, said that man had made a blunder in using nature for his vested interests
Union Ministry of Environment and Forests Joint Director K.K. Garg flagged off the march which was led by school principal Vishwa Bandhu and environment teacher Ajay Sharma. Addressing the marchers, Environment Society of India president S.K. Sharma stressed traditional practices in environmental conservation. The school student's have pledged to take care of some 200 saplings planted by CAPE.
In similar celebrations, the Green Environment Club, Chandigarh, organised an awareness programme on the theme Keep our water sources clean at the premises of the Government Central Crafts Institute For Women. Prof S.C. Jain of Panjab University's Department of Chemical Engineering, spoke on the occasion. He stressed the need to preserve and protect water resources and urged people not to dump garbage, filth and human waste in water. UT Technical Education Director S.K.Aggarwal also spoke. S.K. Sharma gave away prizes to the winners in various competitions relating to World Earth Environment Day. A programme of songs and dances was presented.
The National Service Scheme, Punjab University, and the Government College for Girls, Sector 11, also jointly organised celebrations of the ``World Earth Day'' at Janta Colony, Sector 25 this morning. The celebrations were attended by a number of social workers, community leaders, teachers and NSS volunteers. Dr C.L. Narang, Programme Coordinator, PU, stated that due to ecological imbalances there is a threat of natural calamities in the near future.
Vijay Laxmi, principal of the GCG, said that man had made a blunder in using nature for his vested interests
Industry must contribute to safe environment: Experts
Industry cannot grow at the expense of environment. This was the unanimous opinion of experts at a seminar on `Corporate Environment Initiatives', organised by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), in association with the United States Information Services (USIS) and USAID, here today.
Douglas Weinfiled, environmental director, Manufacturers Alliance, USA, focused on short and long term opportunities for gaining financial benefits from environmental management. He presented various case studies, mainly from among the Fortune 500 companies, which clearly illustrated how a company could do well financially by addressing environmental concerns.
He added that environmental management systems were similar to any other system and that every organisation must allocate adequate resources to achieve its environmental goals.
Michael A. Toman, another expert from Washington, said that diffusion of environment-friendly technology was the key to improving corporate environmental performance. Clean technology was fundamentally an economic and social phenomenon, not merely a matter of engineering, he added. However, it was essential to lower the market barriers, which were hindering the penetration of new technologies, he added.
Douglas Weinfiled, environmental director, Manufacturers Alliance, USA, focused on short and long term opportunities for gaining financial benefits from environmental management. He presented various case studies, mainly from among the Fortune 500 companies, which clearly illustrated how a company could do well financially by addressing environmental concerns.
He added that environmental management systems were similar to any other system and that every organisation must allocate adequate resources to achieve its environmental goals.
Michael A. Toman, another expert from Washington, said that diffusion of environment-friendly technology was the key to improving corporate environmental performance. Clean technology was fundamentally an economic and social phenomenon, not merely a matter of engineering, he added. However, it was essential to lower the market barriers, which were hindering the penetration of new technologies, he added.
Indian states back special projects for tribals
At a recent meeting in the capital, state ministers for tribal affairs backed a plan to run special projects in 54 identified tribal pockets, aimed at improving the lives of tribal populations and ensuring that funds earmarked for tribals are not diverted
A number of Indian states are expected to come out with a special monitoring scheme to check the diversion of funds earmarked for tribals, and to ensure time-bound implementation of various tribal schemes. State tribal affairs ministers have also agreed to run special projects in 54 identified tribal pockets that have low female literacy rates, and will initiate action plans to develop the habitats of primitive tribes. The states agreed to give high priority to students from scheduled tribes (STs) and help prepare them for study at prestigious institutes, in a scheme in which the Centre will fund their studies. These and a slew of other measures aimed at tribal development were announced after a meeting of state ministers for tribal affairs in New Delhi on February 14, 2007.
Inaugurating the meeting, Union Minister for Tribal Affairs P R Kyndiah voiced his concerns over the lack of allocation of funds for tribal welfare schemes in some states. He said that the Tribal Sub-Plan, which had fallen into disuse over the years because of non-implementation by state governments, would be revived. States have been asked to create a separate head for the Tribal Sub-Plan -- first started in 1974 -- so that funds under the plan could not be diverted.
Under the Tribal Sub-Plan, the states are supposed to earmark funds exclusively for the welfare of STs in proportion to the population of scheduled tribes. Kyndiah said his ministry had written to the Planning Commission not to clear the annual plan for the year 2007-08 for states that had failed to implement the Tribal Sub-Plan. He also urged states to implement tribal welfare programmes in a focused and integrated manner.
In a briefing on the Centre's latest initiatives, Kyndiah said that the ministry had identified 75 primitive tribal groups that would receive insurance coverage under the Life Insurance Corporation's Jaishree Bima Yojana. A scheme for development of their habitat has also been drawn up.
The ministry has decided to involve banks in giving loans for income-generation under the National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation. Earlier, loans were disbursed only through the State Scheduled Tribes Finances Corporation that often faced a shortage of funds. Self-help groups would also be involved in disbursing loans at low rates of interest.
The minister expressed his hope that these measures would help prevent tribals from falling into the debt trap.
Sufficient funds have been provided under a special programme to provide 100% financial assistance to the states to take up minor irrigation schemes for scheduled tribes.
Underlining the importance of the recently-passed Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest-Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006, Kyndiah said that the ministry of tribal affairs had constituted a 19-member committee to draft the rules within three months so that the Act could be implemented.
Headed by retired bureaucrat S R Sankaran, the panel will include officials from the ministries of tribal affairs, forests and environment, rural development and panchayati raj, besides representatives from state governments and experts.
The Forest Rights Bill was passed during the winter session of Parliament and received the President's assent on December 29, 2006. It will be another month before it is actually finalised and implemented, according to Union Tribal Affairs Secretary Meena Gupta.
The 2006 Act recognises and vests forest rights and occupation of forest land with scheduled tribes and other traditional forest-dwellers who have been living in the forests for generations but whose rights have never been recorded.
Gupta said the ministry would also develop over 2,700 forest villages, and an amount of Rs 15 lakh per village had been earmarked for the purpose. As many as 13 states would be covered under this scheme that seeks to provide roads, electricity and water to the villages.
A number of Indian states are expected to come out with a special monitoring scheme to check the diversion of funds earmarked for tribals, and to ensure time-bound implementation of various tribal schemes. State tribal affairs ministers have also agreed to run special projects in 54 identified tribal pockets that have low female literacy rates, and will initiate action plans to develop the habitats of primitive tribes. The states agreed to give high priority to students from scheduled tribes (STs) and help prepare them for study at prestigious institutes, in a scheme in which the Centre will fund their studies. These and a slew of other measures aimed at tribal development were announced after a meeting of state ministers for tribal affairs in New Delhi on February 14, 2007.
Inaugurating the meeting, Union Minister for Tribal Affairs P R Kyndiah voiced his concerns over the lack of allocation of funds for tribal welfare schemes in some states. He said that the Tribal Sub-Plan, which had fallen into disuse over the years because of non-implementation by state governments, would be revived. States have been asked to create a separate head for the Tribal Sub-Plan -- first started in 1974 -- so that funds under the plan could not be diverted.
Under the Tribal Sub-Plan, the states are supposed to earmark funds exclusively for the welfare of STs in proportion to the population of scheduled tribes. Kyndiah said his ministry had written to the Planning Commission not to clear the annual plan for the year 2007-08 for states that had failed to implement the Tribal Sub-Plan. He also urged states to implement tribal welfare programmes in a focused and integrated manner.
In a briefing on the Centre's latest initiatives, Kyndiah said that the ministry had identified 75 primitive tribal groups that would receive insurance coverage under the Life Insurance Corporation's Jaishree Bima Yojana. A scheme for development of their habitat has also been drawn up.
The ministry has decided to involve banks in giving loans for income-generation under the National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation. Earlier, loans were disbursed only through the State Scheduled Tribes Finances Corporation that often faced a shortage of funds. Self-help groups would also be involved in disbursing loans at low rates of interest.
The minister expressed his hope that these measures would help prevent tribals from falling into the debt trap.
Sufficient funds have been provided under a special programme to provide 100% financial assistance to the states to take up minor irrigation schemes for scheduled tribes.
Underlining the importance of the recently-passed Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest-Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006, Kyndiah said that the ministry of tribal affairs had constituted a 19-member committee to draft the rules within three months so that the Act could be implemented.
Headed by retired bureaucrat S R Sankaran, the panel will include officials from the ministries of tribal affairs, forests and environment, rural development and panchayati raj, besides representatives from state governments and experts.
The Forest Rights Bill was passed during the winter session of Parliament and received the President's assent on December 29, 2006. It will be another month before it is actually finalised and implemented, according to Union Tribal Affairs Secretary Meena Gupta.
The 2006 Act recognises and vests forest rights and occupation of forest land with scheduled tribes and other traditional forest-dwellers who have been living in the forests for generations but whose rights have never been recorded.
Gupta said the ministry would also develop over 2,700 forest villages, and an amount of Rs 15 lakh per village had been earmarked for the purpose. As many as 13 states would be covered under this scheme that seeks to provide roads, electricity and water to the villages.
Wednesday, July 1, 2009
A new strategy to end farmers' woes
newly-developed scientific strategy may finally end the woes of farmers by averting the possibility of lower crop production or even crop failure and higher food prices in the event of delay in monsoon rains.
The four-pronged strategy developed by the International Crops Research for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) will also help vulnerable farming communities cope better with drought, global warming and other associated effects of climate change, according to a research paper of the institute.
"Climate change is real and its implications are going to be borne by the poorest of the poor," says William Dar, ICRISAT's director general.
"Delayed monsoons as well as below normal rainfall are not something new as these situations occur in rainfed areas very often," he says and recommends adoption of the strategy developed for improved crop production under rainfed conditions.
The strategy calls for growing of drought tolerant and climate change ready crops to match the available length of the growing season and low soil moisture, a contingency plan for replacement of crops affected by drought, efficient management of natural resources and empowering stakeholders through capacity building.
This science-based strategy has been showcased by an ICRISAT-led consortium at Kothapally in Andhra Pradesh. This model is being sealed out in 240 micro-watersheds in India, northeast Thailand, northern Vietnam and China benefiting 250,000 people, officials said.
The ICRISAT-led consortium observed that vast rainfed areas in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are critically deficient in micro and secondary nutrients and hence, soil health needs to be improved urgently. ICRISAT uses new science tools like crop-growth simulation models, water balance techniques and geographic information systems for assessing the length of the crop growing period and drought characterisation.
Analysts describe India's agriculture as a gamble with the monsoons. However, ICRISAT believes that by implementing the above steps, farmers won't have to gamble and India will be better prepared against the effects of climate change, enjoying sustainable food security over the long term.
The four-pronged strategy developed by the International Crops Research for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) will also help vulnerable farming communities cope better with drought, global warming and other associated effects of climate change, according to a research paper of the institute.
"Climate change is real and its implications are going to be borne by the poorest of the poor," says William Dar, ICRISAT's director general.
"Delayed monsoons as well as below normal rainfall are not something new as these situations occur in rainfed areas very often," he says and recommends adoption of the strategy developed for improved crop production under rainfed conditions.
The strategy calls for growing of drought tolerant and climate change ready crops to match the available length of the growing season and low soil moisture, a contingency plan for replacement of crops affected by drought, efficient management of natural resources and empowering stakeholders through capacity building.
This science-based strategy has been showcased by an ICRISAT-led consortium at Kothapally in Andhra Pradesh. This model is being sealed out in 240 micro-watersheds in India, northeast Thailand, northern Vietnam and China benefiting 250,000 people, officials said.
The ICRISAT-led consortium observed that vast rainfed areas in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are critically deficient in micro and secondary nutrients and hence, soil health needs to be improved urgently. ICRISAT uses new science tools like crop-growth simulation models, water balance techniques and geographic information systems for assessing the length of the crop growing period and drought characterisation.
Analysts describe India's agriculture as a gamble with the monsoons. However, ICRISAT believes that by implementing the above steps, farmers won't have to gamble and India will be better prepared against the effects of climate change, enjoying sustainable food security over the long term.
Farmers need not worry when rains are tardy
India needn't gamble or fret about the timing of the monsoon any more, but only if it plays smart. An international science and research body for the tropics has suggested some useful strategies for farmers when the rains are tardy.'The possibility of lower crop production or even crop failure and higher food prices when monsoon rains get delayed can be averted,' said ICRISAT, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, which is headquartered in Patancheru - 25 km from Hyderabad.ICRISAT is advocating a 'four-pronged science-based strategy', which, it says, helps vulnerable farming communities cope better with drought, global warming and other associated effects of climate change.The monsoon rains which lash India with varying intensity at this time of the year are critical to the country's agriculture, and account for a sixth of the country's economic output. About 70 percent of Indians depend on agriculture for their livelihood, and 60 percent of India's farms depend on rains, available figures suggest.ICRISAT Director General William Dar said 'below normal rainfall' occurs in rain-fed areas 'very often', and emphasised that 'climate change is real and its implications are going to be borne by the poorest of the poor.'ICRISAT's formula revolves around:* First, growing drought tolerant and climate change ready crops to match the available length of the growing season and low soil moisture.ICRISAT says they have developed and released several varieties of sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeon pea and groundnut - all of which are more drought tolerant than varieties grown now.* Second is contingency planning for the replacement of crops affected by drought. With delayed rains, farmers may not be able to grow their traditional crops. Instead, they should grow other shorter-duration crops.For instance, in sorghum-growing areas, farmers can plant pearl millet instead.* Third is the efficient management of natural resources, arresting land degradation, conserving soil moisture, harvesting excess water in the rainy season and utilising it to supplement irrigation.* The fourth strategy involves empowering stakeholders through capacity building, enabling rural institutions and formulating policies that support dryland agriculture. Capacity building and knowledge sharing are key.ICRISAT said its 'science-based strategy' was showcased in Kothapally, Andhra Pradesh. This model is being scaled up in 240 micro-watersheds in India, northeast Thailand, northern Vietnam and China, benefiting around 250,000 people.An ICRISAT-led consortium observed that vast rainfed areas in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are critically deficient in micro and secondary soil nutrients.Hence, soil health needs to be improved urgently. Amendments with deficient micro-nutrients increased crop yields by 30 to 70 percent while balanced fertiliser application of deficient major and micro-nutrients doubled crop productivity.ICRISAT says it uses new science tools like crop-growth simulation models, water balance techniques and geographic information systems (GIS) for assessing the length of the crop growing period and drought characterisation.'Right and timely information is the backbone of drought-preparedness,' says ICRISAT.Analysts have describe India's agriculture as a gamble with the monsoon. ICRISAT says that by implementing the above steps, farmers won't have to gamble and India could be better prepared against the effects of climate change, enjoying sustainable food security over the long term.
An insurance plan for climate change victims
AS WESTERN governments dither at the negotiating table over how to help the world's poorest people cope with climate change, some unlikely saviours have stepped up to the plate: the giants of the global insurance industry.
As well as providing protection from the increasingly unpredictable weather, the premiums could also be a powerful way to get poor people to adapt to climate change by encouraging them to invest in measures like drought-resistant crops. Is this profit-driven endeavour too good to be true?
Each year, people in the small Ethiopian village of Adi Ha depend on the precise timing of the rain to grow teff, a sour-tasting grain they turn into the traditional injera flatbread. If the rains fail, so do their livelihoods.
Climate models forecast that droughts, floods, heatwaves and severe storms are destined to become more frequent, so what can poor farmers do? US and European farmers buy crop insurance to cope with extreme weather. But the cost of checking claims from smallholder farmers in developing countries is prohibitive, and so insurance companies have tended to steer clear of them.
Now a different type of insurance scheme is being rolled out in Adi Ha and many other places in Africa, Latin America and Asia, backed by corporate giants such as Swiss Re and Munich Re. Instead of insuring against lost crops, "index insurance" protects farmers against the vagaries of the weather. For example, if rain gauges at local weather stations drop below a certain level, insurance companies can automatically transfer a payout to farmers without having to visit them.
Cover is tailored to each region. In Adi Ha, where farmers need the rains to start before a certain date, those who are insured will receive a payment if rains fail to come before an agreed cut-off date. In the hurricane-prone Caribbean, hotel owners can buy insurance that pays out if winds exceed a certain speed. The premiums can cost as little as a few dollars a year.
The scheme in Ethiopia is backed by Swiss Re, but like others of its kind, it only got off the ground because of the firm's collaborators, in this case Oxfam and the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) at Columbia University, New York.
Alliances between NGOs, charities and insurance firms may seem an unlikely match. "Oxfam went through a big soul-searching process before climbing on board microinsurance projects, and ultimately decided it made sense," says Marjorie Victor of Oxfam America. "Insurance companies have surprisingly aligned interests with NGOs when it comes to reducing risk." According to Molly Hellmuth of IRI, "the trick is to balance the needs of companies to make a profit with the needs of farmers".
Oxfam went through a big soul-searching process before climbing on board microinsurance projects
At a session on insurance and climate change held in March in Copenhagen, Pablo Suarez, a researcher who has consulted on insurance projects for Oxfam and the UN Development Programme, confessed that he initially approached the idea with a degree of scepticism, but now calls himself a "convert".
Heavyweight humanitarians are also backing the idea. Kofi Annan, former secretary-general of the UN and head of the Global Humanitarian Forum, has said that "index insurance may hold answers for some of the more obstinate problems faced by the poor and the vulnerable". Insurance is being considered as part of the successor to the Kyoto protocol, to be hammered out at UN negotiations in December.
As in the west, insurance can also act as a powerful incentive for people to adapt their behaviour to climate change (see "When it pays to cut emissions"). "If I am a farmer and the insurance company tells me my premium will be cheaper if I plant sorghum which is drought-resistant, then that gives me an incentive," says Suarez.
Some schemes are being bundled up with bank loans, allowing farmers to invest in drought-resistant seed or irrigation systems. Farmers in India who bought insurance with loans for better quality seed saw their yields increase up to four-fold in one growing season, and some of them use their profit to buy health insurance.
Despite the promise of projects so far, it would be a mistake to interpret insurance as a "silver bullet", say Koko Warner of the UN University, Tokyo, Japan, and colleagues. They point out there is no evidence yet that the schemes leave poor people less vulnerable, nor help them cope with the long-term effects of climate change such as sea-level rise and desertification. Premiums are renewed annually, so can only protect farmers from events in a coming year. As climate change renders some regions increasingly inhospitable, insurance may become unaffordable.
"Some people are going to be excluded," says Suarez. He points out that this is already true, for instance, in shanty towns in Dhaka, Bangladesh, which are flooded every year. "In those cases promoting insurance is not the right move," he says. "Insurers will not deliberately lose money."
When it pays to cut emissions
Insurance companies are putting increasing pressure on governments to cut emissions, and are giving their customers incentives to do the same.
The industry has a vested interest, because climate change worsens weather-related disasters, leading to mounting risk and payouts. In 2008, a high number of tropical cyclones helped drive overall natural disaster losses to the third highest on record, according to Munich Re figures.
Examples include:
UK insurer Fortis offers preferential mortgage rates for energy-efficient home upgrades
Several companies offer premium discounts to hybrid car drivers
Hurricane-resistant homes built in Florida are automatically eligible for insurance discounts
UK insurers pressed their government to manage the growing flood risk; in exchange they agreed to continue to provide flood insurance to households and small businesses
However, some policies have made people take more risks. Under the US National Flood Insurance Program, the government subsidises private homeowner policies, so the price that homeowners pay doesn't reflect the full scale of flood risk.
Many have criticised the scheme for encouraging people to build on high-risk flood plains and there is evidence that the number of repeat claims from frequently flooded properties is growing.
As well as providing protection from the increasingly unpredictable weather, the premiums could also be a powerful way to get poor people to adapt to climate change by encouraging them to invest in measures like drought-resistant crops. Is this profit-driven endeavour too good to be true?
Each year, people in the small Ethiopian village of Adi Ha depend on the precise timing of the rain to grow teff, a sour-tasting grain they turn into the traditional injera flatbread. If the rains fail, so do their livelihoods.
Climate models forecast that droughts, floods, heatwaves and severe storms are destined to become more frequent, so what can poor farmers do? US and European farmers buy crop insurance to cope with extreme weather. But the cost of checking claims from smallholder farmers in developing countries is prohibitive, and so insurance companies have tended to steer clear of them.
Now a different type of insurance scheme is being rolled out in Adi Ha and many other places in Africa, Latin America and Asia, backed by corporate giants such as Swiss Re and Munich Re. Instead of insuring against lost crops, "index insurance" protects farmers against the vagaries of the weather. For example, if rain gauges at local weather stations drop below a certain level, insurance companies can automatically transfer a payout to farmers without having to visit them.
Cover is tailored to each region. In Adi Ha, where farmers need the rains to start before a certain date, those who are insured will receive a payment if rains fail to come before an agreed cut-off date. In the hurricane-prone Caribbean, hotel owners can buy insurance that pays out if winds exceed a certain speed. The premiums can cost as little as a few dollars a year.
The scheme in Ethiopia is backed by Swiss Re, but like others of its kind, it only got off the ground because of the firm's collaborators, in this case Oxfam and the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) at Columbia University, New York.
Alliances between NGOs, charities and insurance firms may seem an unlikely match. "Oxfam went through a big soul-searching process before climbing on board microinsurance projects, and ultimately decided it made sense," says Marjorie Victor of Oxfam America. "Insurance companies have surprisingly aligned interests with NGOs when it comes to reducing risk." According to Molly Hellmuth of IRI, "the trick is to balance the needs of companies to make a profit with the needs of farmers".
Oxfam went through a big soul-searching process before climbing on board microinsurance projects
At a session on insurance and climate change held in March in Copenhagen, Pablo Suarez, a researcher who has consulted on insurance projects for Oxfam and the UN Development Programme, confessed that he initially approached the idea with a degree of scepticism, but now calls himself a "convert".
Heavyweight humanitarians are also backing the idea. Kofi Annan, former secretary-general of the UN and head of the Global Humanitarian Forum, has said that "index insurance may hold answers for some of the more obstinate problems faced by the poor and the vulnerable". Insurance is being considered as part of the successor to the Kyoto protocol, to be hammered out at UN negotiations in December.
As in the west, insurance can also act as a powerful incentive for people to adapt their behaviour to climate change (see "When it pays to cut emissions"). "If I am a farmer and the insurance company tells me my premium will be cheaper if I plant sorghum which is drought-resistant, then that gives me an incentive," says Suarez.
Some schemes are being bundled up with bank loans, allowing farmers to invest in drought-resistant seed or irrigation systems. Farmers in India who bought insurance with loans for better quality seed saw their yields increase up to four-fold in one growing season, and some of them use their profit to buy health insurance.
Despite the promise of projects so far, it would be a mistake to interpret insurance as a "silver bullet", say Koko Warner of the UN University, Tokyo, Japan, and colleagues. They point out there is no evidence yet that the schemes leave poor people less vulnerable, nor help them cope with the long-term effects of climate change such as sea-level rise and desertification. Premiums are renewed annually, so can only protect farmers from events in a coming year. As climate change renders some regions increasingly inhospitable, insurance may become unaffordable.
"Some people are going to be excluded," says Suarez. He points out that this is already true, for instance, in shanty towns in Dhaka, Bangladesh, which are flooded every year. "In those cases promoting insurance is not the right move," he says. "Insurers will not deliberately lose money."
When it pays to cut emissions
Insurance companies are putting increasing pressure on governments to cut emissions, and are giving their customers incentives to do the same.
The industry has a vested interest, because climate change worsens weather-related disasters, leading to mounting risk and payouts. In 2008, a high number of tropical cyclones helped drive overall natural disaster losses to the third highest on record, according to Munich Re figures.
Examples include:
UK insurer Fortis offers preferential mortgage rates for energy-efficient home upgrades
Several companies offer premium discounts to hybrid car drivers
Hurricane-resistant homes built in Florida are automatically eligible for insurance discounts
UK insurers pressed their government to manage the growing flood risk; in exchange they agreed to continue to provide flood insurance to households and small businesses
However, some policies have made people take more risks. Under the US National Flood Insurance Program, the government subsidises private homeowner policies, so the price that homeowners pay doesn't reflect the full scale of flood risk.
Many have criticised the scheme for encouraging people to build on high-risk flood plains and there is evidence that the number of repeat claims from frequently flooded properties is growing.
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